Pregnancy in fish
Pregnancy has been traditionally defined as the period of time eggs are incubated in the body after the egg-sperm union.
In
Types of reproduction and pregnancy
Pregnancy has been traditionally defined as the period during which developing embryos are incubated in the body after egg-sperm union. Despite strong similarities between
Five modes of reproduction can be differentiated in fish based on relations between the zygote(s) and parents:[6][7]
- Ovuliparity: Fertilizationof eggs is external; zygotes develop externally.
- Oviparity: Fertilization of eggs is internal; zygotes develop externally as eggs with large vitellus.
- Ovoviviparity: Fertilization is internal; zygotes are retained in the female (or male) but without major trophic (feeding) interactions between zygote and parents (there may be minor interactions, such as maintenance of water and oxygen levels). The embryos depend upon their yolk for survival.
There are two types of viviparity among fish.
- Histotrophic ("tissue eating") viviparity: The zygotes develop in the female's oviducts, but she provides no direct nutrition. The embryos survive by eating her eggs or their unborn siblings.
- Hemotrophic ("blood eating") viviparity: The zygotes are retained within the female and are provided with nutrients by her, often through some form of placenta.
Diagram
Fish reproduction types |
| ||||||||||||||||||
Ovoviviparous fish
Examples of ovoviviparous fish are many of the
Viviparous fish
Viviparous fish include the families
Nutrition during pregnancy
Other terms relating to pregnancy in fish relate to the differences in the mode and extent of support the female gives the developing offspring.
"Aplacental viviparity" occurs when the female retains the embryos during the entire time of development but without any transfer of nutrients to the young. The yolk sac is the only source of nutrients for the developing embryo. There are at least two exceptions to this; some sharks gain nourishment by eating unfertilized eggs produced by the mother (
Viviparous fish have developed several ways of providing their offspring with nutrition. "Embryotrophic" or "histrotrophic" nutrition occurs by the production of nutritive fluid, uterine milk, by the uterine lining, which is absorbed directly by the developing embryo. "Hemotrophic" nutrition occurs through the passing of nutritive substances between blood vessels of the mother and embryo that are in close proximity, i.e. a placenta-like organ similar to that found in mammals.[8]
Comparison between species
There is considerable variation between species in the length of pregnancy. At least one group of fish has been named after its pregnancy characteristics. The surfperch, genus Embiotoca, is a saltwater fish with a gestation period of three to six months.[13] This lengthy period of pregnancy gives the family its scientific name from the Greek "embios" meaning "persistent" and "tokos" meaning "birth".
The table below shows the gestation period and number of young born for some selected fish.[citation needed]
Species | Reproduction
method |
Gestation period
(Days) |
Number of young
(Average) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Atlantic sharpnose shark[14] | (Rhizoprionodon terraenovae) | Viviparous | 300-330 | 4-6 |
Barbeled houndshark[15] | (Leptocharias smithii) | Viviparousa | >120 | 7 |
Blackspot shark[16] | (Carcharhinus sealei) | Viviparousb | 270 | 1-2 |
Blue shark[17] | (Prionace glauca) | Viviparous | 270-366 | 4-135 |
Bonnethead shark | (Sphyrna tiburo) | Viviparousc | 4-12[18] | |
Bull shark[19] | (Carcharhinus leucas) | Viviparous | 366 | 4-10 |
Butterfly goodeid[20] | ( Ameca splendens )
|
Viviparous | 55-60 | 6-30 |
Caribbean sharpnose shark | (Rhizoprionodon porosus) | Viviparous | 2-6[21] | |
Daggernose shark[22] | (Isogomphodon oxyrhynchus) | Viviparous | 366 | 2-8 |
Lemon shark[23] | (Negaprion brevirostris) | Viviparous | 366 | 18 (max) |
Oceanic whitetip shark[24] | (Carcharhinus longimanus) | Viviparous | 366 | 1-15 |
Dwarf seahorse[25] | (Hippocampus zosterae) | Ovoviviparous | 3-55 | 10 |
Sandbar shark[26] | (Carcharhinus plumbeus) | Viviparous | 366 | 8 |
Spadenose shark[22] | (Scoliodon laticaudus) | Viviparousd | 150-180 | 6-18 |
Viviparous eelpout[27] | (Zoarces viviparus) | Viviparouse | 180 | 30-400 |
Basking shark[28] | (Cetorhinus maximus) | Ovoviviparous | >366 | unknownf |
Bat ray[29] | (Myliobatis californica) | Ovoviviparous | 270-366 | 2-10 |
Coelacanth | (g. Latimeria) | Ovoviviparous | >366[30] | |
Blue stingray | (Dasyatis chrysonota) | Ovoviviparous | 270 | 1-5 |
Bluespotted stingray[31]
|
(Neotrygon kuhlii) | Ovoviviparous | 90-150 | 1-7 |
Carpet sharks | (f. Ginglymostomatidae) | Ovoviviparous | 180 | 30-40 |
Knifetooth sawfish[32] | (Anoxypristis cuspidata) | Ovoviviparous | 150 | 6-23 |
Nurse shark | ( Ginglymostoma cirratum ),
|
Ovoviviparous | 150 | 21-29 |
Sailfin molly | (Poecilia latipinna) | Ovoviviparous | 21-28 | 10-140 |
Salmon shark[33] | (Lamna ditropis) | Ovoviviparous | 270 | 2-6 |
Sand tiger shark[34] | (Carcharias taurus) | Ovoviviparous | 270-366 | 2g |
School shark[35] | (Galeorhinus galeus) | Ovoviviparous | 366 | 28-38 |
Shortfin mako shark[36] | (Isurus oxyrinchus) | Ovoviviparous | 450-540 | 4-18 |
Spotted eagle ray[37] | (Aetobatus narinari) | Ovoviviparous | 366 | 4 |
Tiger shark[38] | (Galeocerdo cuvier) | Ovoviviparous | 430-480 | 10-80 |
Tawny nurse shark[39]: 195–199 | (Nebrius ferrugineus) | Aplacental viviparity | 1-2 |
- a Unlike any other shark, the yolk-sac placenta is globular or spherical.[39]: 380–381
- b At first, the embryos are sustained by a yolk sac, but later a placenta develops.
- c A bonnethead female produced a pup by parthenogenesis in 2001.[40]
- d The spadenose shark has the most advanced form of egg and the newborn young.[41]
- e The eelpout
- f Only one pregnant female is known to have been caught; she was carrying six unborn young.[28]
- g 1 per uterine horn
Poeciliopsis
Members of the genus Poeciliopsis (amongst others) show variable reproductive life history adaptations. P. monacha can be considered to be lecithotrophic because the female does not really provide any resources for her offspring after fertilization. P. lucida shows an intermediate level of matrotrophy, meaning that to a certain extent, the offspring's metabolism can actually affect the mother's metabolism, allowing for increased nutrient exchange. P. prolifica is considered to be highly matrotrophic, and almost all of the nutrients and materials needed for foetal development are supplied to the oocyte after it has been fertilized. This level of matrotrophy allows Poeciliopsis to carry several broods at different stages of development, a phenomenon known as superfetation.[42]
P. elongata, P. turneri and P. presidionis form another clade which could be considered an outgroup to the P. monacha, P.lucida, and P. prolifica clade. These three species are very highly matrotrophic – so much so that in 1947, C. L. Turner described the follicular cells of P. turneri as "pseudo-placenta, pseudo-chorion, and pseudo-allantois".[citation needed]
Guppy
Guppies are highly prolific livebearers
Elasmobranchs
The majority of
Male pregnancy
The male fishes of
When a female's eggs reach maturity, she squirts them from a chamber in her trunk via her ovipositor into his brood pouch or egg pouch, sometimes called a "marsupium". During a mammalian pregnancy, the placenta allows the female to nourish her progeny in the womb, and remove their waste products. If male pipefish and seahorses provide only a simple pouch for fish eggs to develop and hatch, it might not fully qualify as bona-fide pregnancy. However, current research suggests that in syngnathid species with well developed brood pouches, males do provide nutrients, osmoregulation and oxygenation to the embryos they carry.[44]
Seahorse
When mating, the female seahorse deposits up to 1,500 (average of 100 to 1,000) eggs in the male's pouch, located on the ventral abdomen at the base of the tail. Male juveniles develop pouches when they are 5–7 months old. The male carries the eggs for 9 to 45 days until the seahorses emerge fully developed, but very small. The number born maybe as few as five for smaller species, or 2,500 for larger species. A male seahorse's body has large amounts of prolactin, the same hormone that governs milk production in pregnant mammals and although the male seahorse does not supply milk, his pouch provides oxygen as well as a controlled-environment.
When the fry are ready to be born, the male expels them with muscular contractions, sometimes while attaching himself to seaweed with his tail. Birth typically occurs during the night, and a female returning for the routine morning greeting finds her mate ready for the next batch of eggs.[45]
The table below shows the gestation period and number of young born for some selected seahorses.
Species | Reproduction
method |
Gestation period
(Days) |
Number of young | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Big-belly seahorse[46] | (Hippocampus abdominalis) | Ovoviviparous | 28 | 600-700 |
Lined seahorse[47] | (Hippocampus erectus) | Ovoviviparous | 20-21 | 650 (max) |
Long-snouted seahorse[48] | (Hippocampus guttulatus) | Ovoviviparous | 21 | 581 (max) |
Pipefish
Pipefish brood their offspring either on distinct region of its body or in a brood pouch. Brood pouches vary significantly among different species of pipefish, but all contain a small opening through which the female's eggs can be deposited. The location of the brood pouch can be along the entire underside of the pipefish or just at the base of the tail, as with seahorses.[49] Pipefish in the genus Syngnathus have a brood pouch with a ventral seam that can completely cover all of their eggs when sealed. In males without these pouches, eggs adhere to a strip of soft skin on the ventral surface of their bodies that does not contain any exterior covering – a type of "skin brooding".[50]
At least two species of pipefish,
See also
References
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- ^ a b The Shark Trust. "Basking Shark Factsheet". The Shark Trust. Archived from the original on February 17, 2013. Retrieved July 7, 2006.
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