Presbyterian Church in the United States of America
Presbyterian Church in the United States of America | |
---|---|
Reformed | |
Polity | Presbyterian polity |
Associations |
|
Origin | 1789 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
Branched from | Church of Scotland and Synod of Ulster |
Separations |
|
Merged into | United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (1958) |
Congregations | 8,351 in 1957 |
Members | 2.8 million in 1957 |
Ministers | 10,261 in 1957[1] |
The Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (PCUSA) was a
The denomination originated in colonial times when members of the Church of Scotland and Presbyterians from Ireland first immigrated to America. After the American Revolution, the PCUSA was organized in Philadelphia to provide national leadership for Presbyterians in the new nation. In 1861, Presbyterians in the Southern United States split from the denomination because of disputes over slavery, politics, and theology precipitated by the American Civil War. They established the Presbyterian Church in the United States, often called the "Southern Presbyterian Church". The PCUSA, in turn, was described as the Northern Presbyterian Church. Despite the PCUSA's designation as a "Northern church", it was once again a national denomination in its later years.
Over time, traditional
History
Colonial era
Early organization efforts (1650–1729)
The origins of the
By the second half of the 17th century, Presbyterians were immigrating to
In 1706, seven ministers led by
The synod still had no official confessional statement. The Church of Scotland and the
Old Side–New Side Controversy (1730–1758)
Part of a series on |
Calvinism |
---|
Calvinism portal |
During the 1730s and 1740s, the Presbyterian Church was divided over the impact of the
Other Presbyterians were concerned that revivalism presented a threat to church order. In particular, the practice of
In 1738, the synod moved to restrict itinerant preaching and to tighten educational requirements for ministers, actions the New Side resented.[16] Tensions between the two sides continued to escalate until the Synod of May 1741, which ended with a definite split between the two factions. The Old Side retained control of the Synod of Philadelphia, and it immediately required unconditional subscription to the Westminster Confession with no option to state scruples.[17] The New Side founded the Synod of New York. The new Synod required subscription to the Westminster Confession in accordance with the Adopting Act, but no college degrees were required for ordination.[18]
While the controversy raged, American Presbyterians were also concerned with expanding their influence. In 1740, a New York Board of the
By 1758, both sides were ready for reconciliation. Over the years, New Side revivalism had become less radical. At the same time, Old Side Presbyterians were experiencing numerical decline and were eager to share in the New Side's vitality and growth. The two synods merged to become the Synod of New York and Philadelphia.[20] The united Synod was founded on New Side terms: subscription according to the terms of the Adopting Act; presbyteries were responsible for examining and licensing ordination candidates; candidates were to be examined for learning, orthodoxy and their "experimental acquaintance with religion" (i.e. their personal conversion experiences); and revivals were acknowledged as a work of God.[21]
American Independence (1770–1789)
In the early 1770s, American Presbyterians were initially reluctant to support American Independence, but in time many Presbyterians came to support the
Even before the war, many Presbyterian felt that the single synod system was no longer adequate to meet the needs of a numerically and geographically expanding church. All clergy were supposed to attend annual meetings of the synod, but some years attendance was less than thirty percent. In 1785, a proposal for the creation of a
Under the plan, the old synod was divided into four new synods all under the authority of the General Assembly. The synods were New York and New Jersey, Philadelphia, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Compared to the Church of Scotland, the plan gave presbyteries more power and autonomy. Synods and the General Assembly were to be "agencies for unifying the life of the Church, considering appeals, and promoting the general welfare of the Church as a whole."
In 1787, the plan was sent to the presbyteries for ratification. The synod held its last meeting in May 1788. The first General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America met in Philadelphia in May 1789. At that time, the church had four synods, 16 presbyteries, 177 ministers, 419 congregations and an estimated membership of 18,000.[25][28]
19th century
Interdenominational societies
The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw Americans leaving the Eastern Seaboard to settle further inland. One of the results was that the PCUSA signed a Plan of Union with the Congregationalists of New England in 1801, which formalized cooperation between the two bodies and attempted to provide adequate visitation and preaching for frontier congregations, along with eliminating rivalry between the two denominations.[29] The large growth rate of the Presbyterian Church in the Northeast was in part due to the adoption of Congregationalist settlers along the western frontier.[30]
Not unlike the circuit riders in the Episcopal and Methodist traditions, the presbyteries often sent out licentiates to minister in multiple congregations that were spread out over a wide area.[31] To meet the need for educated clergy, Princeton Theological Seminary and Union Presbyterian Seminary were founded in 1812, followed by Auburn Theological Seminary in 1821.[32]
Growth in the Northeast was accompanied by the creation of moral reform organizations, such as
The support of missionary work was also a priority in the 19th century. The first General Assembly requested that each of the four synods appoint and support two missionaries. Presbyterians took leading roles in creating early local and independent mission societies, including the New York Missionary Society (1796), the Northern Berkshire and Columbia Missionary Societies (1797), the Missionary Society of Connecticut (1798), the Massachusetts Missionary Society (1799), and the Boston Female Society for Missionary Purposes (1800). The first denominational missions agency was the Standing Committee on Mission, which was created in 1802 to coordinate efforts with individual presbyteries and the European missionary societies. The work of the committee was expanded in 1816, becoming the Board of Missions.[36]
In 1817, the General Assembly joined with two other Reformed denominations, the American branch of the Dutch Reformed Church (now the Reformed Church in America) and the Associate Reformed Church, to form the United Foreign Missionary Society. The United Society was particularly focused on work among Native Americans and inhabitants of Central and South America.[36] These denominations also established a United Domestic Missionary Society to station missionaries within the United States.[37]
In 1826, the Congregationalists joined these united efforts. The Congregational mission societies were merged with the United Domestic Missionary Society to become the American Home Missionary Society.[37] The Congregational American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) became the recognized missions agency of the General Assembly, and the United Foreign Missionary Society's operations were merged with the American Board.[36] By 1831, the majority of board members and missionaries of the ABCFM were Presbyterians. As a result, most of the local churches established by the organization were Presbyterian.[38]
Second Great Awakening
Another major stimulus for growth was the
Like the First Great Awakening, Presbyterian ministers were divided over their assessment of the fruits of the new wave of revivals. Many pointed to "excesses" displayed by some participants as signs that the revivals were theologically compromised, such as groans, laughter, convulsions and "jerks" (see
Facing charges of heresy for their Arminian beliefs, Presbyterian ministers Richard McNemar and John Thompson, along with Barton W. Stone and two other ministers, chose to withdraw from the Kentucky Synod and form the independent Springfield Presbytery in 1803. These ministers would later dissolve the Springfield Presbytery and become the founders of the American Restoration Movement, from which the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and Churches of Christ denominations originate.[41]
Meanwhile, the
Church growth in the Northeast was also accompanied by revivalism. While calmer and more reserved than those in the South, the revivals of the Second Great Awakening transformed religion in the Northeast, and they were often led by Presbyterians and Congregationalists.
Old School–New School Controversy
Notwithstanding the General Assembly's attempt to promote peace and unity, two distinct factions, the Old School and the New School, developed through the 1820s over the issues of
Heresy trials of prominent New School leaders further deepened the division within the denomination. Both the Presbytery and Synod of Philadelphia found
The most radical figure in the New School faction was prominent evangelist
The Old School faction was convinced that the Plan of Union with the Congregational churches had undermined Presbyterian doctrine and order. At the 1837 General Assembly, the Old School majority successfully passed resolutions removing all judicatories found under the Plan from the Presbyterian Church. In total, three synods in New York and one synod in Ohio along with 28 presbyteries, 509 ministers, and 60 thousand church members (one-fifth of the PCUSA's membership) were excluded from the church.[47] New School leaders reacted by meeting in Auburn, New York, and issuing the Auburn Declaration, a 16-point defense of their Calvinist orthodoxy.[48]
When the General Assembly met in May 1838 at Philadelphia, the New School commissioners attempted to be seated but were forced to leave and convene their own General Assembly elsewhere in the city. The Old School and New School factions had finally split into two separate churches that were about equal in size. Both churches, however, claimed to be the Presbyterian Church in the USA.[49] The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania decided that the Old School body was the legal successor of the undivided PCUSA.[50]
Slavery dispute and Civil War division
The Synod of Philadelphia and New York had expressed moderate abolitionist sentiments in 1787 when it recommended that all its members "use the most prudent measures consistent with the interests and state of civil society, in the countries where they live, to procure eventually the final abolition of slavery in America". At the same time, Presbyterians in the South were content to reinforce the status quo in their religious teaching, such as in "The Negro Catechism" written by North Carolina Presbyterian minister Henry Pattillo. In Pattillo's catechism, slaves were taught that their roles in life had been ordained by God.[51]
In 1795, the General Assembly ruled that slaveholding was not grounds for
The conflict between Old School and New School factions merged with the slavery controversy. The New School's enthusiasm for moral reform and voluntary societies was evident in its increasing identification with the abolitionist movement. The Old School, however, was convinced that the General Assembly and the larger church should not legislate on moral issues that were not explicitly addressed in the Bible. This effectively drove the majority of Southern Presbyterians to support the Old School faction.[54]
The first definitive split over slavery occurred within the New School Presbyterian Church. In 1858, Southern synods and presbyteries belonging to the New School withdrew and established the pro-slavery United Synod of the Presbyterian Church.
In response, representatives of Old School presbyteries in the South met in December at Augusta, Georgia, to form the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America.[57] The Presbyterian Church in the CSA absorbed the smaller United Synod in 1864. After the Confederacy's defeat in 1865, it was renamed the Presbyterian Church in the United States (PCUS) and was commonly nicknamed the "Southern Presbyterian Church" throughout its history, while the PCUSA was known as the "Northern Presbyterian Church".[55]
Old School-New School reunion in the North
By the 1850s, New School Presbyterians in the North had moved to more moderate positions and reasserted a stronger Presbyterian identity. This was helped in 1852 when the Plan of Union between the New School Church and the Congregationalists was discontinued. Northern Presbyterians of both the Old and New School participated in the Christian Commission that provided religious and social services to Union soldiers during the Civil War. Furthermore, both schools boldly proclaimed the righteousness of the Union cause and engaged in speculation about the role of a newly restored America in ushering in the millennium. This was, in effect, the Old School's repudiation of its teaching against involving the church in political affairs.[58]
A majority of Old School leaders in the North were convinced of the orthodoxy of the New School. Some within the Old School, chiefly Princeton theologian Charles Hodge, claimed that there were still ministers within the New School who adhered to New Haven theology. Nevertheless, the Old and New School General Assemblies in the North and a majority of their presbyteries approved the reunion in 1869 of the PCUSA.[59]
Higher criticism and the Briggs heresy trial
In the decades after the reunion of 1869, conservatives expressed fear over the threat of "
While
While Briggs held to traditional Christian teaching in many areas, such as his belief in the
In response, 63 presbyteries petitioned the General Assembly to take action against Briggs. The 1891 General Assembly vetoed his appointment to Union Theological Seminary's
In 1892, conservatives in the General Assembly were successful in adopting the Portland Deliverance, a statement named for the assembly's meeting place, Portland, Oregon. The Deliverance reasserted the church's belief in biblical inerrancy and required any minister who could not affirm the Bible as "the only infallible rule of faith and practice" to withdraw from the Presbyterian ministry. The Portland Deliverance would be used to convict Briggs of heresy.[64]
20th century
Confessional revision
Briggs' heresy trial was a setback to the movement for confessional revision, which wanted to soften the Westminster Confession's Calvinistic doctrines of predestination and
The 1903 revision of the Westminster Confession eventually led a large number of congregations from the Arminian–leaning Cumberland Presbyterian Church to reunite with the PCUSA in 1906.[61] While overwhelmingly approved, the reunion caused controversy within the PCUSA due to concerns over doctrinal compatibility and racial segregation in the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. Warfield was a strong critic of the merger on doctrinal grounds. Northern Presbyterians, such as Francis James Grimké and Herrick Johnson, objected to the creation of racially segregated presbyteries in the South, a concession demanded by the Cumberland Presbyterians as the price for reunion. Despite these objections, the merger was overwhelmingly approved.[66]
Social gospel and evangelization
By the early 20th century, the Social Gospel movement, which stressed social as well as individual salvation, had found support within the Presbyterian Church. Important figures such as Henry Sloane Coffin, president of New York's Union Seminary and a leading liberal, backed the movement. The most important promoter of the Social Gospel among Presbyterians was Charles Stelzle, the first head of the Workingmen's Department of the PCUSA. The department, created in 1903 to minister to working class immigrants, was the first official denominational agency to pursue a Social Gospel agenda. According to church historian Bradley Longfield, Stelzle "advocated for child-labor laws, workers' compensation, adequate housing, and more effective ways to address vice and crime in order to advance the kingdom of God."[67] After a reorganization in 1908, the work of the department was split between the newly created Department of Church and Labor and the Department of Immigration.[68]
While the Social Gospel was making inroads within the denomination, the ministry of baseball player turned evangelist Billy Sunday demonstrated that evangelicalism and the revivalist tradition was still a force within the denomination. Sunday became the most prominent evangelist of the early 20th century, preaching to over 100 million people and leading an estimated million to conversion throughout his career. Whereas Stelzle emphasized the social aspects of Christianity, Sunday's focus was primarily on the conversion and moral responsibility of the individual.[69]
Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy
Between 1922 and 1936, the PCUSA became embroiled in the so-called
These themes were later expounded upon in
In 1922, prominent New York minister
The 1923 General Assembly reaffirmed the five fundamentals and ordered the Presbytery of New York to ensure that First Presbyterian Church conformed to the Westminster Confession.[73] A month later, the presbytery licensed two ministers who could not affirm the virgin birth, and in February 1924, it acquitted Fosdick who subsequently left his post in the Presbyterian Church.[74]
That same year, a group of liberal ministers composed a statement defending their theological views known as the
The 1925 General Assembly faced the threat of schism over the actions of the Presbytery of New York. Attempting to deescalate the situation, General Assembly moderator Charles Erdman proposed the creation of a special commission to study the church's problems and find solutions.
In 1929, Princeton Theological Seminary was reorganized to make the school's leadership and faculty more representative of the wider church rather than just Old School Presbyterianism. Two of the seminary's new board members were signatories to the Auburn Affirmation. In order to preserve Princeton's Old School legacy, Machen and several of his colleagues founded Westminster Theological Seminary.[78]
Further controversy would erupt over the state of the church's missionary efforts. Sensing a loss of interest and support for foreign missions, the nondenominational Laymen's Foreign Mission Inquiry published
In 1933, Machen and other conservatives founded the Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions. A year later, the General Assembly declared the Independent Board unconstitutional and demanded that all church members cut ties with it. Machen refused to obey, and his ordination was suspended in 1936. Afterwards, Machen led an exodus of conservatives to form what would be later known as the Orthodox Presbyterian Church.[80]
Later history
With the onset of the
At the same time, evangelicalism was continuing to influence the Presbyterian Church. In the late 1940s, the efforts of Christian educator
In 1958, the PCUSA merged with the century-old United Presbyterian Church of North America (UPCNA). This denomination was formed by the 1858 union of Covenanter and Seceder Presbyterians. Between 1937 and 1955, the PCUSA had been discussing merger negotiations with the UPCNA, the Presbyterian Church in the United States and even the Episcopal Church before settling on the UPCNA merger.[83]
Within the UPCNA, there was decreasing support for the merger amidst conservative reservations over the PCUSA's decision to ordain women to the office of minister in 1956 (the PCUSA had been ordaining women to the office of deacon since 1922 and elder since 1930[84]). Nevertheless, the merger of the two denominations was celebrated in Pittsburgh that summer. The new denomination was named the United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (UPCUSA).[83]
Beliefs
As a
Throughout the denomination's existence, a "relatively uniform" view of biblical authority and interpretation based on
The rise of
Faced with possible schism, the General Assembly opted for "theological decentralization" after 1927. It was determined that the General Assembly could not define essential beliefs without first amending the church's constitution, which allowed a greater degree of toleration for alternative interpretations of the Confession.[90] The outcome of the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy was that the church ultimately accepted "moderate liberalism" in order to maintain peace.[91]
Just as liberal theology was gaining acceptance in the 1930s, however, a new theological movement emerged as some liberals became disenchanted with the optimism of their tradition in the face of World War I, the Great Depression and the rise of European fascism. The neo-orthodox looked back to the Bible and the Protestant Reformers of the 16th century in order to construct a "more sturdy theology" able to address the crisis of Western culture.
Organization
Year | Membership |
---|---|
1789 | 18,000 (estimation) |
1800 | 20,000 (estimation) |
1810 | 28,901 |
1820 | 72,096 |
1830 | 173,327 |
1837 | 220,557 |
1839 | 126,583 Old School ;106,000 New School |
1849 | 200,830 OS; 139,047 NS |
1859 | 279,630 OS; 137,990 NS |
1869 | 258,963 OS; 172,560 NS |
1870 | 446,560 |
1880 | 578,671 |
1887 | 697,835 |
1925 | 1,828,916 |
1929 | 1,959,006 |
1931 | 1,859,495 |
1933 | 1,914,886 |
1935 | 1,909,487 |
1937 | 1,906,100 |
1940 | 1,971,364 |
1942 | 1,986,257 |
1944 | 2,040,399 |
1946 | 2,174,530 |
1947 | 2,234,798 |
1950 | 2,364,112 |
1952 | 2,441,933 |
1953 | 2,492,504 |
1954 | 2,526,129 |
1955 | 2,645,745 |
1956 | 2,717,320 |
1957 | 2,775,464 |
[1][28] |
Governing bodies
The Presbyterian Church in the USA was organized according to
A local church was governed by the session, a body of ruling elders elected by the congregation and moderated by the pastor. The session was charged with overseeing the church's spiritual affairs and providing for public worship according to the Directory. The session was also responsible for dispensing church discipline to church members.[98]
Local churches were further organized into geographically defined presbyteries. A presbytery was a convention of all ministers within its jurisdiction and one ruling elder chosen by each session.
Three or more presbyteries formed a synod, which met annually and whose members consisted of ministers and ruling elders representing the presbyteries. Synods functioned as courts of appeal from the presbyteries. They also had the responsibility to ensure the presbyteries and sessions below them adhered to the church's constitution.[100]
The highest judicatory and court of appeal in the church was the General Assembly. Members of the General Assembly included equal numbers of ministers and ruling elders chosen by the presbyteries. Members of the General Assembly were called "Commissioners to the General Assembly". The General Assembly met annually and was presided over by a moderator. It also appointed an executive commission and a judicial commission. The General Assembly could propose constitutional amendments, but these had to be approved by a majority of all presbyteries before taking effect.[101]
Boards
The work of the denomination was carried out through various church boards. As of 1922, these boards included the following:
- Board of Home Missions[102]
- Board of Foreign Missions[102]
- Board of Education granted scholarships to those seeking seminary education.[103]
- Board of Publication oversaw the publication of religious literature as well as the denomination's Sabbath schools.[104]
- Board of the Church Erection Fund provided financial aid to congregations unable to construct their own
- Board of Relief provided financial aid to retired and disabled ministers and missionaries. It also provided aid to the families of deceased ministers. It also operated homes for disabled ministers and the widow and orphans of deceased ministers.[105]
- Board of Missions for Freedmen was established at the end of the Civil War to establish churches and schools for freedmen. It continued to operate in the southern United States until 1923. Its responsibilities included helping to educate and supply African American preachers and teachers. It also built and supported black schools, churches, colleges and seminaries.[106]
- Board of Aid for Colleges and Academies oversaw fundraising for affiliated institutions of higher education.[107]
In 1923, there was a general reorganization of the PCUSA's boards. Seven boards, including Home Missions and Missions for Freedmen, were eliminated and their work consolidated under the newly created Board of National Missions.[108]
Missions
After the Old School–New School split, the Old School General Assembly created the Board of Foreign Missions. Missions were started in Africa, Brazil, China, Colombia, India, Japan, and Thailand. When the New School (which had been partnering with the Congregationalist ABCFM) reunited with the Old School in 1870, the Board of Foreign Missions took over the ABCFM's operations in Iran, Iraq, and Syria. The reunited denomination also expanded missions into Korea, Central America, South America, and the Philippines.[109]
The Board of Home Missions carried on work among Native Americans, Jews, and Asian immigrants. In the words of Frederick J. Heuser, Jr. of the Presbyterian Historical Society, the PCUSA's missionary work established "indigenous churches, a variety of educational facilities, hospitals, orphanages, seminaries, and other institutions that reflected the church's educational, medical and evangelical ministry."[109]
Ecumenical relations
Along with other
See also
References
Notes
- ^ a b Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. Denominational Profile. The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA). Accessed May 26, 2014.
- ^ "History of the Church". Presbyterian Historical Society. Retrieved January 6, 2015.
- ^ "John Knox: Scottish Reformer". Presbyterian Historical Society. 2 October 2014. Retrieved January 6, 2015.
- ^ "A Brief Guide to PCI". Presbyterian Church of Ireland. Retrieved April 9, 2017.
- Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Accessed May 29, 2014.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 2.
- ^ Thompson 1895, pp. 19.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 3.
- ^ Thompson 1895, pp. 23, 25.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 8.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 14.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 8–10.
- ^ Thompson 1895, pp. 33.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 15, 17.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 19, 29.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 27.
- ^ Ahlstrom 2004, p. 274.
- ^ Hart & Meuther 2007, pp. 77.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Balmer & Fitzmier 1993, p. 37.
- ^ a b Balmer & Fitzmier 1993, p. 38.
- ^ Thompson 1895, pp. 66–67.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 49.
- ^ a b Nevin 1888, pp. vii.
- ^ Hart & Meuther 2007, pp. 103.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 58.
- ^ Hart & Meuther 2007, pp. 97.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 61.
- ^ a b Longfield 2013, pp. 58–59.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 71.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 72.
- ^ a b c Heuser 1988, pp. 1.
- ^ a b Horvath.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 83.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 55.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 56.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 57, 139.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 60–61, 68.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 65, 68.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 68–70.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 78.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 91.
- ^ Schaff 1877, pp. 777–780.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 92.
- ^ Commonwealth v. Green, 4 Wharton 531, 1839 Pa. LEXIS 238 (1839).
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 87.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 88.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 89–90.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 94.
- ^ a b Hall 1982, pp. 111.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 107.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 108.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 112–113.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 114–115.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 118–120.
- ^ a b c d e f Hart & Meuther 2005.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 121, 125.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 125–126.
- ^ Balmer 2004, pp. 549–550.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 139.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 139–141.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 135–136.
- ^ "Workingmen's Department" 2003, pp. 65.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 137–138.
- ^ a b c Longfield 2013, pp. 142.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 149.
- ^ a b Longfield 2013, pp. 150.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 152.
- ^ a b Longfield 2013, pp. 153.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 154.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 157.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 159.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 160–162.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 160–163.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 163–166.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 167, 169.
- ^ a b Hart & Meuther 2007, pp. 214.
- ^ "History". Presbyterian Women. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
- ^ PCUSA 1916, pp. 372, 382.
- ^ a b PCUSA 1916, p. 1.
- ^ Rogers 1981, p. 132.
- ^ Rogers 1981, p. 133.
- ^ a b Rogers 1981, p. 134.
- ^ a b Moorhead 2001, p. 72.
- ^ Rogers 1981, p. 135.
- ^ Moorhead 2001, pp. 73, 75.
- ^ Moorhead 2001, p. 73.
- ^ Rogers 1981, pp. 135–136.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 163, 165.
- ^ Moorhead 2001, p. 74.
- ^ PCUSA 1916, p. 360.
- ^ PCUSA 1916, pp. 361–362.
- ^ PCUSA 1916, pp. 364–366.
- ^ PCUSA 1916, pp. 368–369.
- ^ PCUSA 1916, pp. 369–371.
- ^ a b Bittinger 1922, p. 21.
- ^ Bittinger 1922, p. 22.
- ^ Bittinger 1922, p. 24.
- ^ a b Bittinger 1922, p. 25.
- ^ "Guide to the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. Board of Missions for Freedmen Records". history.pcusa.org. Presbyterian Historical Society. Retrieved March 2, 2019.
- ^ Bittinger 1922, p. 27.
- ^ "Guide to the Board of National Missions Office of the General Secretary Records". history.pcusa.org. Presbyterian Historical Society. Retrieved March 2, 2019.
- ^ a b Heuser 1988, pp. 2.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 145.
- ^ Longfield 2013, pp. 146–148.
Bibliography
- ISBN 0-385-11164-9.
- Balmer, Randall Herbert (2004). Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22409-7.
- Balmer, Randall Herbert; Fitzmier, John R. (1993). The Presbyterians. Denominations in America. Vol. 5. Praeger. ISBN 0313260842.
- Bittinger, Benjamin F. (1922). Manual of Law and Usage (Revised ed.). Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work.
- Hall, Russell E. (Summer 1982). "American Presbyterian Churches—A Genealogy, 1706–1982". Journal of Presbyterian History. 60 (2). JSTOR 23328527.
- Hart, D.G.; Meuther, John (2005). "Turning Points in American Presbyterian History, Part 8: Confessional Revision in 1903". New Horizons. Archived from the original on August 30, 2018.
- Hart, D.G.; Meuther, John (2007). Seeking a Better Country: 300 Years of American Presbyterianism. Phillipsburg, New Jersey: P&R Publishing. ISBN 9781629956541.
- Heuser, Frederick J. Jr. (1988). "Presbyterians in Mission: An Historic Overview" (PDF). Gale. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 20, 2015.
- Horvath, David G. "American Home Missionary Society". amistadresearchcenter.tulane.edu. Amistad Research Center. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. Retrieved May 10, 2020.
- "1903: The Founding of the Workingmen's Department, Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.". Journal of Presbyterian History. 81 (1). Presbyterian Historical Society: 64–65. Spring 2003. JSTOR 23336441.
- Longfield, Bradley J. (2013). Presbyterians and American Culture: A History. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster Johh Knox Press. ISBN 9780664231569.
- Moorhead, James H. (Spring 2001). "Redefining Confessionalism: American Presbyterians in the Twentieth Century". Journal of Presbyterian History. 79 (1). Presbyterian Historical Society: 72–86. JSTOR 23335389.
- Nevin, Alfred (1888). History of the Presbytery of Philadelphia, and of the Philadelphia Central. Philadelphia: W. S. Fortescue & Co.
- Presbyterian Church in the USA (1916), The Constitution of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work.
- Rogers, Jack B. (Summer 1981). "Biblical Authority and Confessional Change". Journal of Presbyterian History. 59 (2). Presbyterian Historical Society: 131–160. JSTOR 23328135.
- Schaff, Philip (1877). Creeds of Christendom, Volume III. The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House.
- Thompson, Robert Ellis (1895). A History of the Presbyterian Churches in the United States. The Christian Literature Company.
Further reading
- Hodge, Charles (1867), The Reunion of the Old and New–School Presbyterian Churches, New York: Charles Scribner and Co., ISBN 9780837000619, retrieved April 9, 2017
- Loetscher, Lefferts A. (1954). The Broadening Church: A Study of Theological Issues in the Presbyterian Church Since 1869. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.