Presidency of George Washington
1788–1789 | |
Seat | |
---|---|
→ | |
Dorsett seal | |
Library website |
| ||
---|---|---|
American Revolution
1st President of the United States
First term
Second term
Legacy
|
||
The presidency of George Washington began on
Washington, who had established his preeminence among the new nation's
He presided over the establishment of the new
Greatly concerned about the growing partisanship within the government and the detrimental impact political parties could have on the fragile unity of the nation, Washington struggled throughout his eight-year presidency to hold rival factions together. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never to be formally affiliated with a political party.[1] Despite his efforts, debates over Hamilton's economic policy, the French Revolution, and the Jay Treaty deepened ideological divisions. Those who supported Hamilton formed the Federalist Party, while his opponents coalesced around Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and formed the Democratic-Republican Party. While criticized for furthering the partisanship he sought to avoid by identifying himself with Hamilton, Washington is nonetheless considered by scholars and political historians as one of the greatest presidents in American history, usually ranking in the top three with Abraham Lincoln and Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Election of 1788–1789
Following the
I should unfeignedly rejoice, in case the Electors, by giving their votes to another person would save me from the dreaded dilemma of being forced to accept or refuse... If that may not be–I am, in the next place, earnestly desirous of searching out the truth, and knowing whether there does not exist a probability that the government would be just as happily and effectually carried into execution without my aid."[7]
Less certain was the choice for the
Each state's
Before the votes were counted, Washington had declared his willingness to serve and was preparing to leave Mount Vernon for New York City, the nation's temporary capital.[6] On April 6, 1789, the House and Senate, meeting in joint session, counted the electoral votes and certified that Washington had been elected President of the United States with 69 electoral votes. They also certified that Adams, with 34 electoral votes, had been elected as vice president.[12][13] The other 35 electoral votes were scattered. Informed of his election on April 14,[12] Washington wrote in a letter to Edward Rutledge that in accepting the presidency, he had given up "all expectations of private happiness in this world."[15]
Start of first presidential and vice-presidential terms
The Congress of the Confederation had set March 4, 1789, as the date for the beginning of operations of the new federal government under the new Constitution. Owing to the formidable difficulties of long-distance travel in 18th-century America, Congress was unable to reach a quorum until April.[16] The House finally achieved a quorum on April 1, and the Senate on April 6, at which time the electoral votes were counted.[17] Washington and Adams were certified as elected.
Adams arrived in New York on April 20 and was inaugurated as vice president on the next day.
In his inaugural address (Full text ), Washington again touched upon his reluctance to accept the presidency.
Election of 1792
As the presidential election of 1792 approached, Washington, pleased with the progress his administration had made in establishing a strong, stable federal government,[26] hoped to retire rather than seek a second term.[27] He complained of old age, sickness, the in-fighting plaguing his cabinet, and the increasing hostility of the partisan press.[28] The members of his cabinet—especially Jefferson and Hamilton—worked diligently through the summer and autumn to persuade Washington not to retire.[29] They apprised him of the potential impact the French Revolutionary Wars might have on the country and insisted that only someone with his popularity and moderation could lead the nation effectively during the volatile times ahead.[3][30] In the end, "Washington never announced his candidacy in the election of 1792," wrote John Ferling in his book on Washington, "he simply never said that he would not consider a second term."[31]
The 1792 elections were the first ones in U.S. history to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states, the congressional elections were recognized in some sense as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest", as Jefferson strategist John Beckley wrote.[32] Because few doubted that Washington would receive the greatest number of electoral votes, the vice presidency became the focus of popular attention. The speculation here also tended to be organized along partisan lines – Hamiltonians supported Adams and Jeffersonians favored New York governor George Clinton.[33][34] Both were technically candidates for president competing against Washington, as electoral rules of the time required each presidential elector to cast two votes without distinguishing which was for president and which for vice president. The recipient of the most votes would then become president, and the runner-up vice president.[35]
Washington was unanimously re-elected president, receiving 132 electoral votes (one from each elector), and Adams was re-elected vice president, receiving 77 votes. The other 55 electoral votes were divided among: George Clinton (50), Thomas Jefferson (4), and Aaron Burr (1).[28]
Washington's second inauguration took place in the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on March 4, 1793. The presidential oath of office was administered by Supreme Court associate justice William Cushing. Washington's inaugural address was just 135 words, the shortest ever.[36] The short and simple inauguration was viewed in a stark contrast to that of 1789, which was perceived by many as almost a monarchical coronation.[31]
Although his second term began simultaneously with Washington's, John Adams was sworn into office for that term on December 2, 1793, when the Senate reconvened, in the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall. The vice-presidential oath was administered by the president pro tempore of the Senate John Langdon.[18]
Administration
Cabinet
The Washington cabinet | ||
---|---|---|
Office | Name | Term |
President | George Washington | 1789–1797 |
Vice President | John Adams | 1789–1797 |
Secretary of State | John Jay (acting) | 1789–1790 |
Thomas Jefferson | 1790–1793 | |
Edmund Randolph | 1794–1795 | |
Timothy Pickering | 1795–1797 | |
Secretary of the Treasury | Alexander Hamilton | 1789–1795 |
Oliver Wolcott Jr. | 1795–1797 | |
Secretary of War | Henry Knox | 1789–1794 |
Timothy Pickering | 1795 | |
James McHenry | 1796–1797 | |
Attorney General | Edmund Randolph | 1789–1794 |
William Bradford | 1794–1795 | |
Charles Lee | 1795–1797 |
The new Constitution empowered the president to appoint
Washington considered himself to be an expert in both foreign affairs and the Department of War, and as such, according to Forrest McDonald, "he was in practice his own Foreign Secretary and War Secretary."[45] Jefferson left the cabinet at the end of 1793,[46] and was replaced by Randolph, while William Bradford took over as Attorney General.[47] Like Jefferson, Randolph tended to favor the French in foreign affairs, but he held very little influence in the cabinet.[48] Knox, Hamilton, and Randolph all left the cabinet during Washington's second term; Randolph was forced to resign during the debate over the Jay Treaty. Timothy Pickering succeeded Knox as Secretary of War, while Oliver Wolcott became Secretary of the Treasury and Charles Lee took the position of Attorney General.[49] In 1795, Pickering became the Secretary of State, and James McHenry replaced Pickering as Secretary of War.[50]
Hamilton and Jefferson had the greatest impact on cabinet deliberations during Washington's first term. Their deep philosophical differences set them against each other from the outset, and they frequently sparred over economic and foreign policy issues.[51] With Jefferson's departure, Hamilton came to dominate the cabinet,[52] and he remained very influential within the administration even after he left the cabinet during Washington's second term to practice law in New York City.[53]
Vice presidency
During his two vice-presidential terms, Adams attended few cabinet meetings, and the President sought his counsel only infrequently. Nonetheless, the two men, according to Adams biographer, John E. Ferling, "jointly executed many more of the executive branch's ceremonial undertakings than would be likely for a contemporary president and vice-president."
His first incursion into the legislative realm occurred shortly after he assumed office, during the Senate debates over titles for the president and executive officers of the new government. Although the House of Representatives agreed in short order that the president should be addressed simply as George Washington, President of the United States, the Senate debated the issue at some length.
While Adams brought energy and dedication to the presiding officer's chair, he found the task "not quite adapted to my character."[54][61] Ever cautious about going beyond the constitutional limits of the vice-presidency or of encroaching upon presidential prerogative, Adams often ended up lamenting what he viewed as the "complete insignificance" of his situation.[62] To his wife Abigail he wrote, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man . . . or his imagination contrived or his imagination conceived; and as I can do neither good nor evil, I must be borne away by others and meet the common fate."[63]
First presidential veto
The Constitution granted the president the power to veto legislation, but Washington was reluctant to encroach on legislative affairs, and he only exercised his veto power twice.[64] He exercised his presidential veto power for the first time on April 5, 1792, to stop an apportionment act from becoming law. The bill would have redistributed House seats among the states in a way that Washington considered unconstitutional.[65][66] After attempting but failing to override the veto, Congress soon wrote new legislation, the Apportionment Act of 1792, which Washington signed into law on April 14.[67]
Salary
On September 24, 1789, Congress voted to pay the president a salary of $25,000 a year, and the vice president an annual salary of $5,000.[68][69] Washington's salary was equal to two percent of the total federal budget in 1789.[70]
Judicial appointments
Article Three of the Constitution established the judicial branch of the federal government, but left several issues to the discretion of Congress or the president. Unresolved issues included the size of the Supreme Court, the identity of the first Supreme Court Justices, the number and establishment of federal courts below the Supreme Court, and the relationship between state and federal courts. In September 1789, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, primarily written by Connecticut Senator Oliver Ellsworth.[71] Through the Judiciary Act, Congress established a six-member Supreme Court, composed of one Chief Justice and five Associate Justices. The act also created thirteen judicial districts, along with district courts and circuit courts for each district.[72]
As the first president, Washington was responsible for appointing the entire Supreme Court. As such, he filled more vacancies on the Court than any other president in American history. On September 24, 1789, Washington nominated
As Associate Justices left the court in subsequent years, Washington appointed
The Judiciary Act also created 13 judicial districts within the 11 states that had then ratified the Constitution, with Massachusetts and Virginia each being divided into two districts. Both North Carolina and Rhode Island were added as judicial districts in 1790 after they ratified the Constitution, as were the subsequent states that Congress admitted to the Union. The act also established
Domestic affairs
Selection of permanent U.S. capital
The subject of a permanent
Washington, Jefferson, and Madison all supported a permanent capital on the Potomac; Hamilton backed a temporary capital in New York City, and a permanent one in
The Residence Act authorized the president to select a specific site along the Potomac for the permanent seat of government. It also authorized him to appoint three commissioners to survey and acquire property for the
Construction on the White House (then called the President's House) was begun in 1792.[86][87] Washington laid the cornerstone for the United States Capitol (then called the Congress House) on September 18, 1793.[88][89] John Adams, Washington's successor, moved into the White House in November 1800;[90] that same month, Congress held its first session in the Capitol.[91] The following February, Congress approved the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, which officially organized the District of Columbia, and, in accordance with the Constitution, named Congress as its exclusive governing authority.[92]
Tariff of 1789
One of the most pressing issues facing the
To enable the federal government to collect the import duties, Congress also passed the Collection Act of 1789, which established the
Hamiltonian economic program
After the passage of the Tariff of 1789, various other plans were considered to address the debt issues during the first session of Congress, but none were able to generate widespread support. In September 1789, with no resolution in sight and the close of that session drawing near, Congress directed Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton to prepare a credit report.[99] In his Report on the Public Credit, Hamilton estimated that the state and federal governments had a combined debt of $79 million; he projected that the federal government's annual income would be $2.8 million. Drawing on the ideas of Robert Morris and others, Hamilton proposed the most ambitious and far-reaching economic plan that had ever been advanced by an American, calling for the federal assumption of state debt and the mass issuance of federal bonds.[100] Hamilton believed that these measures would restore the ailing economy, ensure a stable and adequate money stock, and make it easier for the federal government to borrow during emergencies such as wars.[101] He also proposed redeeming the promissory notes issued by the Continental Congress during the American Revolution at full value, thereby establishing the precedent that the government would uphold the value of its securities. Hamilton's proposal drew opposition from Madison, who was reluctant to reward the speculators who had bought up many of the promissory notes at a fraction of their value after the Revolutionary War.[102]
Congressional delegations from Virginia, Maryland, and Georgia, which had lower or no debts, and whose citizens would effectively pay a portion of the debt of other states if the federal government assumed it, were disinclined to accept the proposal. Many in Congress argued that the plan was beyond the constitutional power of the new government. James Madison led the effort to block the provision and prevent the plan from gaining approval.[103] Others contended that the debts should be repudiated, and the United States should refuse to pay them.[104] Washington supported Hamilton's plan but refused to become involved in the congressional debate, and opposition mounted in the House of Representatives.[105] The debate over assumption became entangled with the simultaneous debate over the site of the nation's capital. In the Compromise of 1790, Hamilton's assumption plan was adopted as the Funding Act of 1790, as several southern congressmen voted for the bill in exchange for a capital located on the Potomac River.[106]
Later in 1790, Hamilton issued another set of recommendations in his
The following year, Congress passed the
In December 1791, Hamilton published the Report on Manufactures, which recommended numerous policies designed to protect U.S. merchants and industries to increase national wealth, induce artisans to immigrate, cause machinery to be invented, and employ women and children.[113] Hamilton called for federally supervised infrastructure projects, the establishment of state-owned munitions factories and subsidies for privately owned factories, and the imposition of a protective tariff.[114] Though Congress had adopted much of Hamilton's earlier proposals, his manufacturing proposals fell flat, even in the more-industrialized North, as merchant-shipowners had a stake in free trade.[113] There were also questions raised about the constitutionality of these proposals,[115] and opponents such as Jefferson feared that Hamilton's expansive interpretation of the Necessary and Proper Clause would grant Congress the power to legislate on any subject.[116]
In 1792, with their relationship completely ruptured, Jefferson unsuccessfully tried to convince Washington to remove Hamilton, but Washington largely supported Hamilton's ideas, believing that they had led to social and economic stability.[117] Dissonance over Hamilton's proposals also irrevocably broke the relationship between Washington and Madison, who had served as the president's foremost congressional ally during the first year of his presidency.[118] Opponents of Hamilton and the administration won several seats in the 1792 Congressional elections, and Hamilton was unable to win Congressional approval of his ambitious economic proposals afterward.[114]
Whiskey Rebellion
Despite the additional import duties imposed by the
The tax on whiskey was bitterly and fiercely opposed on the frontier from the day it was passed. Western farmers considered it to be both unfair and discriminatory. As the Lower Mississippi River had been closed to American shipping for nearly a decade, farmers in western Pennsylvania were forced to turn their grain into whiskey. The substantial reduction in volume resulting from the distillation of grain into whiskey greatly reduced the cost to transport their crops to the populous east coast, which was the only place where there were markets for their crops.[119] In mid-1794, the government began to crack down on tax evasion, launching prosecutions against dozens of distilleries.[126]
On July 15, 1794, tax collector John Neville and his slaves fired at a militia that had surrounded his house, killing a member of the militia.[127] The next day, a group of militia members seeking Neville fired on a group of federal soldiers, causing casualties on both sides. Following this confrontation, the militia captured a federal marshal and continued to clash with federal forces.[128] As word of this rebellion spread across the frontier, a whole series of loosely organized resistance measures were taken, including robbing the mail, stopping court proceedings, and the threat of an assault on Pittsburgh.[129]
Washington, alarmed by what appeared to be an armed insurrection in
Washington commanded a militia force of 12,950 men, roughly the same size of the
The suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion was met with widespread popular approval.[136] This was the first time the new government had been directly opposed, and through a clear show of federal authority, Washington established the principle that federal law is the supreme law of the land,[137] and demonstrated that the federal government had both the ability and willingness to suppress violent resistance to the nation's laws. The government's response to the rebellion was, therefore, viewed by the Washington administration as a success, a view that has generally been endorsed by historians.[138]
Rise of political parties
Initially, Jefferson and Hamilton enjoyed a friendly working relationship. While never close, they seldom clashed during the first year in the Washington administration. Even so, deep philosophical differences soon caused a rift between them, and finally drove them apart.[139][140] Hamilton believed that a vigorous use of the central government was essential for the task of nation-building.[141] He also believed that "a flourishing merchant economy would sow opportunities for all, resulting in a more philanthropic, knowledgeable and enterprising people." In Jefferson's view, centralized government was "simply European-style tyranny waiting to happen again." He idealized the yeoman farmers, for they "controlled their own destinies, and also a republic that, resting on the yeoman farmer, would keep 'alive that sacred fire' of personal liberty and virtue."[139] These differences gained their clearest expression in the debate about the Bank of the United States.[141]
As a split grew proponents and critics of Hamilton's economic policies, Jefferson and Madison sought to counter the influence of a Hamilton-aligned newspaper, the Gazette of the United States. They convinced Philip Freneau to establish the National Gazette, which recast the national politics not as a battle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, but as a debate between aristocrats and republicans. By the end of 1792, political observers had begun to note the emergence of two political parties.[142] In May 1792, Hamilton himself wrote, "Mr. Madison cooperating with Mr. Jefferson is at the head of a faction decidedly hostile to me and my administration."[143] Washington sought to alleviate the rising tension between Jefferson and Hamilton, as well as prevent the partisan polarization of national politics, but by the end of 1792 Jefferson and his followers completely distrusted Hamilton.[144] The faction aligned with Hamilton became known as the Federalists, while those aligned with Jefferson and Madison became known as the Republicans (often referred to as the Democratic-Republican Party to avoid confusion with the modern Republican Party). Political leaders of both groups, but especially the Federalists, were reluctant to label their own faction as a political party. Nonetheless, distinct and consistent voting blocs emerged in Congress in 1793.[145] The Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the South, and many of the party's leaders were wealthy Southern slaveowners. The Democratic-Republicans also attracted middle-class Northerners, such as artisans, farmers, and lower-level merchants, who were eager to challenge the power of the local elite.[146] The Federalists had broad support in New England, but in other places they relied on wealthy merchants and landowners.[147]
While economic policies were the original motivating factor in the growing partisan split, foreign policy also became a factor. Though most Americans supported the French Revolution before the
After crushing the Whiskey Rebellion, Washington publicly blamed the Democratic-Republican Societies for the rebellion, and Jefferson began to view Washington as "the head of a party" rather than "the head of a nation." Hamilton's followers, who coalesced into the Federalist Party, were thrilled by Washington's remarks, and the party sought to closely associate itself with Washington. The passage of the Jay Treaty further inflamed partisan warfare, resulting in a hardening of the divisions between the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans.[149] By 1795–96, election campaigns—federal, state and local—were waged primarily along partisan lines between the two national parties, although local issues continued to affect elections, and party affiliations remained in flux.[150]
Constitutional amendments
Congress approved 12 amendments to the
Although some Anti-Federalists continued to call for a new federal constitutional convention and ridiculed them, by December 15, 1791, 10 of the 12 proposed amendments had been
On March 4, 1794, in response to the ruling in Chisholm v. Georgia, Congress approved an amendment to the United States Constitution clarifying judicial power over foreign nationals, and limiting the ability of citizens to sue states in federal courts and under federal law, and submitted it to the state legislatures for ratification.[158] The Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states (then 12) on February 7, 1795, to become part of the Constitution.[159]
Slavery
In 1790, the
Northwest Indian War
Chief Little Turtle (mihšihkinaahkwa)
|
Major General Anthony Wayne
|
Following adoption of the
Determined to avenge the defeat, the president ordered Major General
British officials in
Outraged by news of the defeat, Washington urged Congress to raise an army capable of conducting a successful offense against the Native confederacy, which it did in March 1792 – establishing more Army regiments (the Legion of the United States), adding three-year enlistments, and increasing military pay.[169] The following month the House of Representatives conducted investigative hearings into the debacle. This was the first special Congressional investigation under the federal Constitution.[170] Afterward, Congress passed two Militia Acts: the first empowered the president to call out the militias of the several states; the second required that every free able-bodied white male citizen of the various states, between the ages of 18 and 45, enroll in the militia of the state in which they reside.[171]
Next, Washington put Major General "Mad"
Taking the offensive, the legion marched north through the forest, and, upon reaching the confluence of the Auglaize and Maumee Rivers —about 45 miles (72 km) southwest of Fort Miami— on August 8, built Fort Defiance, a stockade with blockhouse bastions. There he offered peace, which was rejected.[166] Wayne's soldiers advanced toward Fort Miami and on August 20, 1794, encountered Native American confederacy forces led by Blue Jacket, in what has become known as the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The first assault on Wayne's Legion was successful, but were able to regroup quickly and pressed the attack with a bayonet charge. The cavalry outflanked Blue Jacket's warriors, who were easily routed. They fled towards Fort Miami but were surprised to find the gates closed against them. The British commander of the fort refused to assist them, unwilling to start a war with the United States. Wayne's army had won a decisive victory. The soldiers spent several days destroying the nearby Native villages and crops, before withdrawing.[173]
With the door slammed shut on them by their old allies, Native American resistance quickly collapsed.[173] Delegates from the various confederation tribes, 1130 persons total, gathered for a peace conference at Fort Greene Ville in June 1795. The conference lasted for six weeks, resulting, on August 3, 1795, in the Treaty of Greenville between the assembled tribes and the "15 fires of the United States."[166] Under its terms, the tribes ceded most of what is now Ohio for American settlement, recognized the United States (rather than Great Britain) as the ruling power in the region, and turned ten chiefs over to the U.S. government as hostages until all white prisoners were returned. This, along with the recently signed Jay Treaty, which provided for the British withdrawal from pre-Revolutionary War forts in the region it had not yet relinquished, solidified U.S. sovereignty over the Northwest Territory.[174] Believing that the Natives were on the verge of extinction due to uncontrolled white settlement in protected lands, Washington and Knox sought to assimilate them into American society.[175] In the Southwest, Washington pursued this policy of assimilation through treaties such as the Treaty of New York and the Treaty of Holston.[176]
Foreign affairs
French Revolution
Public debate
With the
In the Caribbean, the revolution destabilized the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), as it split the government into royalist and revolutionary factions, and aroused the people to demand civil rights for themselves. Sensing an opportunity, the slaves of northern St. Domingue organized and planned a massive rebellion which began on August 22, 1791. Their successful revolution resulted in the establishment of the second independent country in the Americas (after the United States).[180] Soon after the revolt began, the Washington administration, at French request, agreed to send money, arms, and provisions to Saint-Domingue to assist distressed slave-owning colonists.[181] Reacting to reports spread by fleeing Frenchmen of Haitian slaves murdering people, many Southerners believed that a successful slave revolt in Haiti would lead to a massive race war in America.[182] American aid to Saint-Domingue formed part of the US repayment of Revolutionary War loans, and eventually amounted to about $400,000 and 1,000 military weapons.[183]
From 1790 to 1794, the French Revolution became increasingly radical.
Though originally most Americans were in support of the revolution, the political debate in the U.S. over the nature of the revolution soon exacerbated pre-existing political divisions and resulted in the alignment of the political elite along pro-French and pro-British lines. Thomas Jefferson became the leader of the pro-French faction that celebrated the revolution's republican ideals. Though originally in support of the revolution, Alexander Hamilton soon led the faction which viewed the revolution with skepticism (believing that "absolute liberty would lead to absolute tyranny") and sought to preserve existing commercial ties with Great Britain.[177][188] When news reached America that France had declared war on the British, people were divided on whether the U.S. should enter the war on the side of France. Jefferson and his faction wanted to aid the French, while Hamilton and his followers supported neutrality in the conflict. Jeffersonians denounced Hamilton, Vice President Adams, and even the president as friends of Britain, monarchists, and enemies of the republican values that all true Americans cherish.[189][190] Hamiltonians warned that Jefferson's Republicans would replicate the terrors of the French Revolution in America – "crowd rule" akin to anarchy, and the destruction of "all order and rank in society and government."[191]
American neutrality
Although the president, who believed that the United States was too weak and unstable to fight another war with a major European power, wished to avoid any foreign entanglements,
Washington was deeply irritated by this subversive meddling, and when Genêt allowed a French-sponsored warship to sail out of Philadelphia against direct presidential orders, Washington demanded that France recall Genêt. By this time the revolution had taken a more violent approach and Genêt would have been executed had he returned to France. He appealed to Washington, and Washington allowed him to remain, making him the first political refugee to seek sanctuary in the United States.[195] Genêt's actual effectiveness has been contested, with Forrest McDonald writing that "Genêt was almost obsolete by the time he arrived in Charleston on April 8, 1793."[196]
During the Genêt episode, Washington, after consulting his Cabinet, issued a
The public had mixed opinions about Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality. Those who supported Madison and Jefferson were far more likely to be in support of the French Revolution, as they saw it as an opportunity for a nation to achieve liberty from tyrannical rule. Several merchants were extremely happy that the President decided to remain impartial to the revolution. They believed that if the government took a stance on the war, it would ruin their trade relations with the British completely. This economic element was a primary reason for many Federalist supporters wanting to avoid increased conflict with the British.[199] Hamilton supported the Proclamation of Neutrality, defending it both in cabinet meetings,[200] and in newspapers under the pseudonym "Pacificus."[201] He encouraged Washington to issue the Proclamation, lecturing him about the need for a "continuance of the peace, the desire of which may be said to be both universal and ardent."[202]
Relations with Great Britain
Seizures and economic retaliation
Upon going to war against France, the British Royal Navy began intercepting ships of neutral countries bound for French ports. The French imported large amounts of American foodstuffs, and the British hoped to starve the French into defeat by intercepting these shipments.[203] In November 1793, the British government widened the scope of these seizures to include any neutral ships trading with the French West Indies, including those flying the American flag.[204] By the following March, more than 250 U.S. merchant ships had been seized.[205] Americans were outraged, and angry protests erupted in several cities.[206] Many Jeffersonians in Congress demanded a declaration of war, but Congressman James Madison instead called for strong economic retaliation, including an embargo on all trade with Britain.[207] Further inflaming anti-British sentiment in Congress, news arrived while the matter was under debate that the Governor General of British North America, Lord Dorchester, had made an inflammatory speech inciting Native tribes in the Northwest Territory against the Americans.[204][207][e]
Congress responded to these "outrages" by passing a 30-day embargo on all shipping, foreign and domestic, in American harbors.
Jay Treaty
Jay was instructed by Alexander Hamilton to seek compensation for the seizure of American ships and to clarify the rules governing the British seizure of neutral ships. He was also to insist that the British relinquish their posts in the Northwest. In return, the U.S. would take responsibility for pre-Revolution debts owed to British merchants and subjects. He also asked Jay, if possible, to seek limited access for American ships to the
Once the treaty arrived in Philadelphia in March 1795, Washington—who had misgivings about the treaty's terms—kept its contents confidential until June, when a
Although the Senate hoped to keep the treaty secret until Washington had decided whether or not to sign it, it was leaked to a Philadelphia editor who printed it in full on June 30.[218] Once the public became aware of the terms of the agreement, in the words of Samuel Morison, "a howl of rage went up that Jay had betrayed his country."[220] The reaction to the treaty was the most negative in the South. Southern planters, who owed the pre-Revolution debts to the British and who were now not going to collect for the slaves who had escaped to them during the Revolutionary War, viewed it as a great indignity. As a result, the Federalists lost most of the support they had among planters.[221] Protests, organized by Republicans, included petitions, incendiary pamphlets, and a series of public meetings held in the larger cities, each of which addressed a memorial to the president.[222] As protests from treaty opponents intensified, Washington's initial neutral position shifted to a solid pro-treaty stance, aided by Hamilton's elaborate analysis of the treaty and his two-dozen newspaper essays promoting it.[223] The British, to promote the signing of the treaty, delivered a letter in which Randolph was revealed to have taken bribes from the French. Randolph was forced to resign from the cabinet; his opposition to the treaty became worthless. On August 24, Washington signed the treaty.[224] There was a temporary lull in the Jay Treaty furor thereafter. By late 1796, the Federalists had gained twice as many signatures in favor of the treaty as had been gathered against. Public opinion had been swayed in favor of the treaty.[225] The following year, it flared up again when the House of Representatives inserted itself into the debate. The new debate was not only over the merits of the treaty, but also about whether the House had the power under the Constitution to refuse to appropriate the money necessary for a treaty already ratified by the Senate and signed by the president.[222] Citing its constitutional fiscal authority (Article I, Section 7), the House requested that the president turn over all documents that related to the treaty, including his instructions to Jay, all correspondence, and all other documents relating to the treaty negotiations. He refused to do so, invoking what later became known as executive privilege,[137] and insisted that the House did not have the Constitutional authority to block treaties.[218][226] A contentious debate ensued, during which Washington's most vehement opponents in the House publicly called for his impeachment.[221] Through it all, Washington responded to his critics by using his prestige, political skills, and the power of office in a sincere and straightforward fashion to broaden public support for his stance.[223] The Federalists heavily promoted the passage, waging what Forrest McDonald calls "The most intensive campaign of pressure politics the nation had yet known."[227] On April 30, the House voted 51–48 to approve the requisite treaty funding.[218] Jeffersonians carried their campaign against the treaty and "pro-British Federalist policies" into the political campaigns (both state and federal) of 1796, where the political divisions marking the First Party System became crystallized.[228]
The treaty pushed the new nation away from France and towards Great Britain. The French government concluded that it violated the Franco-American treaty of 1778 and that the U.S. government had accepted the treaty despite the overwhelming public sentiment against it.[228] This set up a series of diplomatic and political conflicts over the ensuing four years, culminating in the Quasi-War.[218][229] The Jay Treaty also helped ensure American control of its own frontier lands. After the signing of the treaty, the British withdrew their support from several Native American tribes, while the Spanish, fearing that the Jay Treaty signaled the creation of an Anglo-American alliance, sought to appease the United States.[230]
Barbary pirates
Following the end of the Revolutionary War, the ships of the
Piracy against American merchant shipping had not been a problem before 1776, when ships from the Thirteen Colonies were protected by British warships and treaties (nor was it a problem during the revolution, as the French Navy assumed the responsibility as part of the alliance treaty). Only after the U.S. achieved its independence did Barbary pirates begin capturing American ships and demanding ransom or tribute.[234] Also, once the French Revolution started, the British Navy began intercepting American merchant ships suspected of trading with France, and France began intercepting American merchant ships suspected of trading with Great Britain. Defenseless, the American government could do little to resist.[235] Even given these events there was great resistance in Congress to the formation of a naval force. Opponents asserted that payment of tribute to the Barbary states was a better solution than building a navy, which they argued would only lead to calls for a navy department, and the staff to operate it. This would then lead to more appropriations of funds, which would eventually spiral out of control, giving birth to a "self-feeding entity."[236][237] Then, in 1793, a truce negotiated between Portugal and Algiers ended Portugal's blockade of the Strait of Gibraltar, freeing the Barbary pirates to roam the Atlantic. Within months, they had captured 11 American vessels and more than a hundred seamen.[231][234]
The cumulation of all these events led Washington to request Congress to establish a standing navy.
Relations with Spain
In the late 1780s,
Spain had, since 1763, controlled the lands west of the Mississippi River. Those lands consisted of
After Washington issued his 1793 Proclamation of Neutrality he became concerned that Spain, which later that year joined Britain in war against France, might work in concert with Britain to incite insurrection in the Yazoo against the U.S., using the opening of trade on the Mississippi as an enticement.
Eleven months after the signing of the Jay Treaty, the United States and Spain agreed to the Treaty of San Lorenzo, also known as Pinckney's Treaty. Signed on October 27, 1795, the treaty established intentions of peace and friendship between the U.S. and Spain; established the southern boundary of the U.S. with the Spanish colonies of East Florida and West Florida, with Spain relinquishing its claim on the portion of West Florida north of the 31st parallel; and established the western U.S. border as being along the Mississippi River from the northern U.S. to the 31st parallel.[248]
Perhaps most importantly, Pinckney's Treaty granted both Spanish and American ships unrestricted navigation rights along the entire Mississippi River, as well as duty-free transport for American ships through the Spanish port of New Orleans, opening much of the Ohio River basin for settlement and trade. Agricultural produce could now flow on flatboats down the Ohio River to the Mississippi and on to New Orleans. From there the goods could be shipped around the world. Spain and the United States further agreed to protect the vessels of the other party anywhere within their jurisdictions and to not detain or embargo the other's citizens or vessels.[249]
The final treaty also voided Spanish guarantees of military support that colonial officials had made to Native Americans in the disputed regions, greatly weakening those communities' ability to resist encroachment upon their lands.
Presidential residences and tours
Residences
Washington's wife Martha managed the presidential household in the federal capital, in addition to supervising affairs at Mount Vernon. Often referred to as "lady Washington" (the term "First Lady" did not come into common use until the mid-19th century[252]), she also organized weekly public salons, where she met with visiting dignitaries, members of Congress, and citizens from the local community. These receptions made Martha, as Abigail Adams wrote, "the object of Veneration and Respect."[253] Martha coordinated weekly levees for the president as well. Designed to give the public access to the president and to project a dignified public image of the presidency, these receptions also elicited criticism. Opposition newspapers derided them as monarchical and wasteful. Nonetheless, the gatherings became a fixture in the capital's social scene, and continued throughout Washington's presidency.[254]
Washington and his household lived in three executive mansions during his presidency:
Residence and location | Time span | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|
Samuel Osgood House 3 Cherry Street New York, New York |
Congress leased the house from Samuel Osgood for a sum of $845 per year.[256][257] | ||
Alexander Macomb House 39–41 Broadway New York, New York |
The "first family" moved into this larger and more conveniently located house when Elénor-François-Elie, Comte de Moustier returned to France.[257] | ||
President's House 524–30 Market Street Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
Washington brought nine of his numerous slaves to Philadelphia, circumventing the 1788 amendments to Pennsylvania's Gradual Abolition law by rotating them between the capital and Mount Vernon.[260] |
Tours
Washington made three major tours around the country. The first was to New England (1789), the second to Rhode Island and New York City (1790), and the third to the Southern states of Maryland, Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina (1791).[261] His main goals were to educate himself about "the principal character and internal circumstances" of the different regions of the country, as well as meet "well-informed persons, who might give him useful information and advice on political subjects."[262]
Because he was himself from the South, Washington decided to visit the Northern states first. After Congress went into recess in September 1789, Washington traveled to New England, making his first stop in New Haven, Connecticut. Washington then traveled to Boston, where a large crowd greeted him. From Boston, Washington traveled north, stopping in Marblehead and Salem, Massachusetts. About a week after arriving in Boston, he traveled north to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and circled back to New York, stopping in Waltham and Lexington. The trip was a success, serving to consolidate his popularity and improve his health. During his time in New England, Washington inspected possible sites for roads and canals and observed textile mills.[263] After Rhode Island ratified the Constitution in 1790, Washington promptly took another tour to visit it. Along with Jefferson and New York governor George Clinton, he first stopped in Newport, Rhode Island, then traveled to Providence, Rhode Island.[264]
In 1791, Washington toured the South, largely to promote national unity amid uproar over Hamilton's economic plan and slavery. The trip began on March 20, 1791, when Washington and a small group of aides began sailing down the Severn River. After sailing through a large storm, they arrived in Annapolis. From Annapolis they traveled to Mount Vernon, and from there to Colchester, Virginia, to Richmond, Virginia. After leaving Richmond, they went to Petersburg, then Greensville, Virginia. They left Virginia and went to Craven County, North Carolina, then New Bern. The group's last stop in North Carolina was Wilmington, after which they traveled to Georgetown, South Carolina, subsequently stopping in Charleston. Washington had never traveled south of North Carolina before 1791, and he was warmly received in Charleston. After South Carolina, Washington and his party arrived in Georgia, going to (among others) Augusta. In late May, the group turned around, stopping at many Revolutionary War battle sites and the Moravian community at Salem, North Carolina. On June 11, 1791, they arrived back at Mount Vernon.[265][266] Washington's Southern tour also included two stops at the location of the Federal City to negotiate purchase of land and survey the site.
States joining the Union
When the federal government began operations under the new form of government in the spring of 1789, two states—North Carolina and Rhode Island—were not yet members of the Union as neither had ratified the Constitution.[267][268] Both did so while Washington was in office, thereby joining the Union: North Carolina, November 21, 1789;[269][270] and Rhode Island, May 29, 1790.[270] While North Carolina joined of its own accord, Rhode Island only joined the Union after the federal government threatened to break off trade relations.[269][271]
Three new states were admitted to the Union (each on an equal footing with the existing states) while Washington was in office: Vermont, on March 4, 1791;[272][g] Kentucky, on June 1, 1792;[274][h] and Tennessee, on June 1, 1796.[275][i]
Farewell Address and election of 1796
Farewell Address
As his second term entered its final year in 1796, Washington was exhausted from years of public service. Though he remained in fine mental condition, his physical health had begun to decline. He was also bothered by the constant attacks from the Democratic-Republican press, which had escalated after the signing of the Jay Treaty. Perhaps most importantly, Washington believed that he had accomplished his major goals as president. The nation had a stable economy, a strong grip over its Western territories, and peaceful relations with foreign powers.[276] Against the wishes of most Federalists, who hoped that the president would seek re-election, Washington decided early in 1796 that he would retire unless compelled to run by a national emergency. He delayed a formal announcement until later in the year, but began drafting his Farewell Address.[277]
As was the case with his 1783 decision to resign his military commission,[278] Washington's decision to relinquish his political power voluntarily was a momentous decision, as national leaders of that era in the western world rarely gave up their titles voluntarily.[279] In making the announcement and then following through on it, Washington established a precedent for the democratic transfer of executive power.[280] His departure from office after two terms set a pattern for subsequent U.S. presidents.[279][280][j]
In 1792, when Washington had considered retiring after one term, he turned to James Madison for help composing a "valedictory address" to the public. Now, four years later, he turned to Alexander Hamilton for guidance. Over the course of several months, Hamilton and the president collaborated on the form and wording of the address. One of Hamilton's drafts included pointedly sharp criticism of the newspapers and the press of the day, something subsequently not included in the final, finished letter.[282] The final product, wrote Hamilton biographer Marie Hecht, "was a true marriage of minds, the peak of amity and understanding between the two men." Most historians believe that while the language is primarily Hamilton's, the ideas are essentially Washington's.[280] The address was published on September 19, 1796, in David Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser. It was immediately reprinted in newspapers and as a pamphlet throughout the United States.[283]
Washington makes clear at the outset that he is not running for a third term, and then thanks his fellow citizens for the opportunity to serve as their president.[284] He then writes about the preservation of the Union, the core of American nationhood and which, along with the Constitution, binds all Americans together and provides for the popular well-being. Concerned about the obstacles and potential hazards that lay ahead for the nation, Washington urges the nation's people to cherish and safeguard their hard-won system of republican government despite their many differences.[285]
The unity of government which constitutes you one people is also now dear to you. It is justly so; for it is a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence, the support of your tranquility at home, your peace abroad, of your safety, of your prosperity, of that very liberty which you so highly prize. But as it is easy to foresee that, from different causes and from different quarters, much pains will be taken, many artifices employed, to weaken in your minds the conviction of this truth; as this is the point in your political fortress against which the batteries of internal and external enemies will be most constantly and actively (though often covertly and insidiously) directed, it is of infinite moment that you should properly estimate the immense value of your national Union to your collective and individual happiness; that you should cherish a cordial, habitual, and immovable attachment to it; accustoming yourselves to think and speak of it as of the palladium of your political safety and prosperity; watching for its preservation with jealous anxiety; discountenancing whatever may suggest even a suspicion that it can in any event be abandoned; and indignantly frowning upon the first dawning of every attempt to alienate any portion of our country from the rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together the various parts.[286] Full text
The address is largely a statement of his policies while in office, with some comments mixed in to highlight certain points,[284] in which he builds a case for the steps needed to perpetuate the union, a concept that began to germinate among and between the states during the Revolutionary War. In doing so he lifts a well-formed and functioning Constitution (the rule of law), along with the proper habits and dispositions (both intellectual and religious) of the people as essential. Washington also lays out the greatest threats he sees to the Union, warning Americans to distrust the passions of political factionalism, be wary of foreign interference in the nation's domestic affairs, and avoid an entangling foreign policy.[285]
After Washington died in 1799, the address was reprinted in newspapers, and included in schoolbooks and collections of Washington's writings and biographies throughout the country.[280] A quarter-century later, both Jefferson and Madison placed it on the primary reading list at the University of Virginia, describing it as one of the "best guides" to the "distinctive principles" of American government.[285] It became one of the "great state papers of American history", often read in classrooms and other venues long after Washington left office.[287] The U.S. Senate observes Washington's Birthday (February 22) each year by selecting one of its members, alternating parties, to read the address in legislative session.[288]
Today the address is primarily remembered for its words concerning non-involvement in European wars and politics. For much of the 19th century, the expanse of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans had made it possible for the U.S. to enjoy a kind of "free security" and remain largely detached from Old World conflicts,
Election of 1796
Washington's announcement on September 19, 1796, that he would not be a candidate for a third term was, in the words of congressman
The Democratic-Republicans in Congress held a nominating caucus and named Jefferson and Aaron Burr as their presidential choices. Jefferson at first declined the nomination, but he agreed to run a few weeks later. Federalist members of Congress held an informal nominating caucus and named Adams and Thomas Pinckney as their candidates for president.[295][296] The campaign was, for the most part, unorganized and sporadic, confined to newspaper attacks, pamphlets and political rallies;[294] of the four contenders, only Burr actively campaigned.[293]
In early November, France's ambassador to the U.S., Pierre Adet, inserted himself into the political debate on behalf of Jefferson, publishing statements designed to arouse anti-British sentiment and to leave the impression that a Jefferson victory would result in improved relations with France.[294][297] Then, late in the campaign, Alexander Hamilton, desiring "a more pliant president than Adams", maneuvered to tip the election to Pinckney. He coerced South Carolina Federalist electors, pledged to vote for "favorite son" Pinckney, to scatter their second votes among candidates other than Adams. Hamilton's scheme was undone when several New England state electors heard of it, conferred, and agreed not to vote for Pinckney.[298]
The electoral votes were counted during a Joint Session of Congress on February 8, 1797; Adams won the presidency by a narrow margin, garnering 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson (who became the vice president).[295][299] The balance of the Electoral College votes were dispersed among: Thomas Pinckney (59), Aaron Burr (30), Samuel Adams (15), Oliver Ellsworth (11), George Clinton (7), John Jay (5), James Iredell (3), John Henry (2), Samuel Johnston (2), George Washington (2), and C. C. Pinckney (1).[300]
Historical evaluation
George Washington's presidency has generally been viewed as one of the most successful, and he is often considered to be one of the three greatest American presidents ever.[301][302] When historians began ranking the presidents in 1948, Washington ranked second in Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.'s poll,[303] and has subsequently been ranked 3rd in the Riders-McIver Poll (1996),[304] 2nd in the 2017 survey by C-SPAN,[305] and 3rd in the American Political Science Association's 2024 poll.[306][307]
More than 900 books having been written about Washington.[citation needed] Forrest McDonald concluded that "George Washington was indispensable, but only for what he was, not for what he did. He was the symbol of the presidency [but]... Washington had done little in his own right, had often opposed the best measures of his subordinates, and had taken credit for his achievements that he had no share in bringing about."[308] By contrast, in his piece on Washington, Stephen Knott wrote "Literally the 'Father of the Nation,' Washington almost single-handedly created a new government—shaping its institutions, offices, and political practices...Washington's profound achievements built the foundations of a powerful national government that has survived for more than two centuries."[309] Knotts adds that historians generally consider Washington's inability to prevent the outbreak of heated partisan battles to be his greatest failure.[137] Ron Chernow considers Washington's presidency to be "simply breathtaking" writing:[310]
He had restored American credit and assumed state debt; created a bank, a mint, a coast guard, a customs service, and a diplomatic corps; introduced the first accounting, tax, and budgetary procedures; maintained peace at home and abroad; inaugurated a navy, bolstered the army, and shored up coastal defenses and infrastructure; proved that the country could regulate commerce and negotiate binding treaties; protected frontier settlers, subdued Indian uprisings, and established law and order amid rebellion, scrupulously adhering all the while to the letter of the Constitution ... Most of all he had shown a disbelieving world that republican government could prosper without being spineless or disorderly or reverting to authoritarian rule.
See also
- Federalist Era, the period of American history during which Washington was President
- List of George Washington articles
- Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution, covers pertinent events from 1785 to 1791
Notes
- ^ Only ten of the thirteen states cast electoral votes in this election. North Carolina and Rhode Island did not participate as they had not yet ratified the Constitution. The New York legislature failed to appoint its allotted electors in time, so there were no voting electors from New York.[13][14]
- ^ The Attorney General would not lead an executive department until the establishment of the Department of Justice in 1870, and the Postmaster-General would not become a cabinet-level position until 1829.
- ^ Rutledge was the first Supreme Court nominee to be rejected, and is the only "recess appointed" justice not to be subsequently confirmed by the Senate.
- ^ One of the two amendments not ratified in 1791 was later ratified, May 7, 1992, becoming the Twenty-seventh Amendment;[156] the other amendment is technically still pending before the states.[157]
- ^ It was reported that in February 1794, the Governor General of British North America, Lord Dorchester, told leaders of the Seven Nations of Canada that war between the U.S. and Britain was likely to break out before the year was out. He also stated that, due to American aggression in the region, the U.S. had forfeited the region (south of the Great Lakes) awarded by 1783 Treaty of Paris.[208] Dorchester was officially reprimanded by the Crown for his strong and unsanctioned words.
- ^ While the Ineligibility Clause of Article I, Section 6 of the Constitution prohibits persons serving in a federal executive or judicial branch office from simultaneously serving in Congress, it does not (nor does any other constitutional provision) prohibit simultaneous service in executive branch and judicial branch offices. As well as John Jay, Chief Justices Oliver Ellsworth and John Marshall also served dual executive and judicial offices in the early decades of the nation's existence.[211] More recently, Associate Justice Robert H. Jackson was appointed to serve as U.S. Chief of Counsel for the prosecution of Nazi war criminals at the 1945–46 Nuremberg trials,[212] and Chief Justice Earl Warren was appointed as chairman of the 1964 commission formed to investigate the assassination of John F. Kennedy.[213]
- ^ Vermont declared itself an independent republic on January 17, 1777, during the American Revolutionary War, but its territory was claimed by the State of New York. Only when New York was induced to renounce its claim in exchange for financial remuneration; an agreement formally accepted by both jurisdictions as of October 28, 1790) was Statehood possible.[273]
- ^ Kentucky is one of 3 states that were set off from already existing states (Maine and West Virginia are the others). The Virginia General Assembly adopted legislation on December 18, 1789, separating its "District of Kentucky" from the rest of the State and approving its statehood.[273]
- U.S. territory, the Territory South of the River Ohio; previously, what would become Tennessee had been part of the State of North Carolina.[273]
- ^ From 1789 to 1940, U.S. presidents adhered to a self-imposed limit of two terms. The precedent was exceeded only once, by Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was elected to four terms, and served from 1933 through 1945. The 22nd Amendment, proposed and ratified following Franklin Roosevelt's presidency, provides that "No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice."[281]
- ^ In seven states presidential electors were chosen by voters. In the remaining nine states, they were chosen by the state's legislature.[293]
References
- ^ "George Washington's Farewell Warning". POLITICO Magazine. Archived from the original on November 14, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
- ^ Unger 2015, p. 51
- ^ a b c Knott, Stephen (October 4, 2016). "George Washington: Campaigns and Elections". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ "To George Washington from Gouverneur Morris, 30 October 1787". Founders Online. Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
- ^ Chernow 2010, p. 548
- ^ a b "From His Peaceful Retirement at Mount Vernon, Washington Answers "The Call of His Country"". Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ Conroy, Sarah Booth. "First President's Election Was the Last Thing He Wanted". Charlottesville, Virginia: Papers of George Washington Project at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on July 17, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ISSN 0899-8086. Archived from the originalon October 18, 2017. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
- ^ a b Chernow 2010, p. 551
- ^ Meacham 2012, p. 220
- ISBN 9780299121204.
- ^ a b c Ferling 2009, pp. 270–274
- ^ a b "Presidential Election of 1789". Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on January 14, 2016. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ Maier 2010, p. 438
- ^ a b Chernow, Ron (February 2011). "George Washington: The Reluctant President". Smithsonian. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ Henry, Laurin L. (October 1968). "The Awkward Interval". American Heritage. Vol. 19, no. 6. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017.
- ^ "The First Quorum of the House of Representatives". US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
- ^ a b "Vice Presidential Inaugurations". Washington, D.C.: Architect of the Capitol. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
- ^ Washington, George (April 21, 1789). "From George Washington to the Ladies of Trenton, 21 April 1789". Founders Online, National Archives.
- ISBN 978-1-59605-233-8.
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 50–51
- ^ "First Inaugural Address". Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration. July 17, 2017. Archived from the original on July 19, 2017. Retrieved July 18, 2017.
- ^ Boissoneault, Lorraine. "The Speech and Bible From George Washington's First Inauguration Made History Many Times Over". Smithsonian. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
- ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
- ^ Alden 1993, p. 236
- ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 303–304
- ^ McDonald 1974 p. 104
- ^ a b "Presidential Elections". History. A&E Networks. Archived from the original on March 21, 2017. Retrieved July 18, 2017.
- ^ Ferling 2009, p. 306
- ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 310–312
- ^ a b Ferling 2009, p. 312
- ^ Elkins & McKitrick 1995, p. 288
- ^ McDonald 1974 pp. 104–105
- ^ Conant, Charles Arthur (1901). Alexander Hamilton. Houghton, Mifflin. p. 119.
election of 1792 hamilton support Adams.
- ^ House, Lolabel (1901). A Study of the Twelfth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States... University of Pennsylvania. pp. 25–27.
john Adams vice president.
- ^ "The 2nd Presidential Inauguration: George Washington, March 4, 1793". Washington, D.C.: Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies. Archived from the original on January 20, 2017. Retrieved March 19, 2017.
- ^ "The Constitution and the cabinet nomination process". National Constitution Center. Retrieved April 14, 2018.
- ^ McDonald 1974 pp. 36–37
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 63–64
- ^ McDonald 1974 pp. 36–42, 125
- ^ Ellis 2016, p. 27
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 159–160
- ^ Chernow 2004, p. 286
- ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 282–284
- ^ McDonald 1974 p. 41
- ^ "Biographies of the Secretaries of State: Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826)". Washington, D.C.: Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ McDonald 1974, pp. 139, 164–165
- ^ McDonald 1974, pp. 139
- ^ McDonald 1974, pp. 161, 164–165
- ^ Ferling 2003, pp. 406–407
- ^ Ferling, John (February 15, 2016). "How the Rivalry Between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton Changed History". A version of this piece appears in TIME's special edition Alexander Hamilton: A Founding Father's Visionary Genius—and His Tragic Fate. New York City, New York: Time. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2017.
- ^ McDonald 1974, pp. 139–140
- ^ McDonald 1974, pp. 161
- ^ a b c This article incorporates public domain material from Vice President of the United States (President of the Senate). United States Senate. Retrieved July 23, 2017.
- ^ "John Adams, 1st Vice President (1789–1797)". United States Senate. Archived from the original on October 11, 2003. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
- ^ Bartoloni-Tuazon 2014, p. 12
- JSTOR 363331.
- ^ Bartoloni-Tuazon 2014, p. 86
- ^ McDonald 1974, pp. 29–31
- ^ Wood 2006, p. 54
- ^ Smith 1962, p. 769
- ^ Smith 1962, p. 864
- ^ Smith 1962, p. 844
- ^ Ellis 2016, pp. 20–21
- ^ "April 05, 1792: Washington exercises first presidential veto". This Day In History. New York: A&E Networks. 2009. Archived from the original on July 1, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ Dunsing, Mariah (April 8, 2013). "The First Presidential Veto". teachingamericanhistory.org. Ashland, Ohio: Ashbrook Center, Ashland University. Archived from the original on July 1, 2017. Retrieved July 17, 2017.
- S2CID 144603155.
- ^ "Jefferson-Signed Document Confirming Salaries for Washington and Adams Sells for $28,000 at Auction". Fine Books Notes. Chapel Hill North Carolina: Fine Books & Collections, OP Media. May 15, 2015. Archived from the original on August 7, 2017. Retrieved July 17, 2017.
- ^ "Presidential and Vice Presidential Salaries, 1789+". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved October 7, 2009.
- ^ Korch, Travers (February 9, 2012). "Cost of Living in George Washington's Time". FOX News Network. Archived from the original on August 7, 2017. Retrieved July 17, 2017.
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 106–111
- ^ "The Court as an Institution". Washington, D.C.: Supreme Court of the United States. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
- ^ a b "U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations: 1789–Present". www.senate.gov. United States Senate. Archived from the original on February 21, 2017. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
- ^ Hodak, George (February 1, 2011). "February 2, 1790: Supreme Court Holds Inaugural Session". American Bar Association. Chicago, Illinois. Archived from the original on August 24, 2017. Retrieved August 24, 2017.
- ^ a b "George Washington and the Supreme Court". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
- ^ Ellis 2016, pp. 25–26
- ^ Chardavoyne 2012, pp. 10–12
- ^ "Judges of the United States Courts" Archived July 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Biographical Directory of Federal Judges. Federal Judicial Center. Retrieved March 12, 2017
- ^ a b c d Allen 2001, pp. 3–6
- ISBN 9780815608080.
- ^ Bordewich 2016, p. 145
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 150–157
- ^ Chernow 2004, pp. 324–331
- ^ Grogg, Robert. "Introduction: Where Oh Where Should the Capital Be?". Washington, D.C.: The White House Historical Association. Archived from the original on July 4, 2017. Retrieved August 21, 2017.
- ^ Crew, Webb & Wooldridge 2015, p. 101
- ^ Allen 2001, pp. 13–15
- ^ "Inside the White House: History". Washington, D.C.: Office of the Curator, The White House. Archived from the original on August 18, 2017. Retrieved August 19, 2017.
- ^ Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington. The Society. 1899. p. 36.
congress house.
- ^ "Sep 18, 1793: Capitol cornerstone is laid". This Day In History. New York: A&E Networks. Archived from the original on September 1, 2017. Retrieved August 19, 2017.
- ^ "Nov 01, 1800: John Adams moves into White House". This Day In History. New York: A&E Networks. Archived from the original on February 10, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2017.
- ^ "November 17, 1800: The Senate Moves to Washington". Washington, D.C.: United States Senate Historical Office. Archived from the original on July 5, 2017. Retrieved August 18, 2017.
- ^ Crew, Webb & Wooldridge 2015, p. 103
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 37–41
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 100–102
- ^ Bordewich 2016, p. 108
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 102–103
- ^ This article incorporates public domain material from U.S. Coast Guard History. United States Coast Guard. Retrieved July 21, 2017.
- ^ Bailey, Kennedy & Cohen 2006 pp. 193–195
- ^ Miller 1960, p. 39
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 183–187
- ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 289–291
- ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 620–622
- ^ Ellis 2000, pp. 48–52
- ^ McDonald 1974 p.54
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 209–212
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 244–252
- ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 293–298
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 294–299
- ^ Chernow 2004, pp. 353–354
- JSTOR 1116782.
- ^ Morison 1965, pp. 329–330
- ^ Ferling 2003, pp. 339–340
- ^ a b Morison 1965, p. 325
- ^ a b Ferling 2003, pp. 349–354, 376
- ^ "Hamilton's Treasury Department and a great Constitutional debate". National Constitution Center. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
- ^ Barnett, Randy E. "The Original Meaning of the Necessary and Proper Clause". Georgetown Law. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
- ^ Ferling 2003, pp. 345–346
- ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 292–293
- ^ doi:10.2308/0148-4184.40.2.91. Archived from the originalon July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2017 – via University of Mississippi Digital Collections.
- ^ Chernow 2004, p. 341.
- ^ Hogeland 2006, p. 27.
- ^ Chernow 2004, pp. 342–43
- ^ Slaughter 1986, 100.
- ^ Slaughter 1986, p. 105
- ^ Hogeland 2006, p. 64.
- ^ Slaughter 1986, pp. 176–177
- ^ Slaughter 1986, pp. 177–179
- ^ Slaughter 1986, pp. 179–182
- ^ a b Holt, Wythe. "The Whiskey Rebellion of 1794: A Democratic Working-Class Insurrection" (PDF). Paper presented at The Georgia Workshop in Early American History and Culture Archived November 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, 2004.
- ^ Elkins & McKitrick 1995, p. 479.
- ^ Slaughter 1986, pp. 197–99
- ^ Hogeland 2006, pp. 205–06.
- JSTOR 1900658.
- ^ Craughwell & Phelps 2008, p. 22.
- ^ Ifft 1985, p. 172
- ^ Elkins & McKitrick 1995, 481–84.
- ^ a b c Knott, Stephen (October 4, 2016). "George Washington: Impact and Legacy". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on August 8, 2017. Retrieved August 7, 2017.
- ^ Boyd 1994, pp. 73–84
- ^ a b Ferling, John (February 15, 2016). "How the Rivalry Between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton Changed History". Time. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
- from the original on December 30, 2016. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
- ^ a b Beer 1987, p. 111.
- ^ Wood 2009, pp. 150–151
- ^ Wood 2009, p. 153
- ^ Wood 2009, pp. 154–158
- ^ Wood 2009, pp. 161–162
- ^ Wood 2009, pp. 166–168
- ^ Wood 2009, pp. 168–171
- ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 299–302, 309–311
- ^ a b Ferling 2009, pp. 323–328, 338–344
- ^ Ferling 2003, pp. 397–400
- ^ "Bill of Rights: Primary Documents of American History (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)". www.loc.gov. Archived from the original on February 25, 2017. Retrieved February 24, 2017.
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 85–88
- ^ Bordewich 2016, 88–93, 136–139
- ^ Morison 1965, p. 319
- ^ "A bill of rights as provided in the ten original amendments to the constitution of the United States in force December 15, 1791. [n. p. 195-]". The Library of Congress. Archived from the original on February 25, 2017. Retrieved February 24, 2017.
- ^ Berke, Richard (May 8, 1992). "1789 Amendment Is Ratified But Now the Debate Begins" Archived February 17, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times. Retrieved March 17, 2017.
- ^ "Virtual Exhibit: Ratification of the U.S. Constitution, 1787–1791 – Constitution Day". LibGuides at Washington State University. August 21, 2015. Archived from the original on June 10, 2015. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
- ^ "Annotation 1 — Eleventh Amendment — FindLaw". Findlaw. Archived from the original on June 25, 2013. Retrieved February 24, 2017.
- ^ "CRS/LII Annotated Constitution Eleventh Amendment". Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on February 25, 2017. Retrieved February 24, 2017.
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 198–206, 213–220
- History. Archivedfrom the original on February 25, 2017. Retrieved February 24, 2017.
- ^ "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875". The Library of Congress. Archived from the original on February 25, 2017. Retrieved February 24, 2017.
- ^ Wiley Sword, President Washington's Indian War: The Struggle for the Old Northwest, 1790–1795 (University of Oklahoma Press, 1985).
- ^ "Saint Clair's Defeat | United States history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
- JSTOR 2944223. Archived from the original(PDF) on April 17, 2017.
- ^ a b c Morison 1965, pp. 342–343
- ^ Bellfy 2011, pp. 53–55
- ^ "Fort Miamis – Fallen Timbers Battlefield and Fort Miamis National Historic Site". U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
- ^ Schecter 2010, p. 238
- ^ Buffenbarger, Thomas E. (September 15, 2011). "St. Clair's Campaign of 1791: A Defeat in the Wilderness That Helped Forge Today's U.S. Army". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 20, 2017.
- ^ "May 08, 1792: Militia Act establishes conscription under federal law". This Day In History. New York: A&E Networks. 2009. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 20, 2017.
- JSTOR 1922806.
- ^ a b Barnes 2003, pp. 203–205
- ^ Kent 1918
- ^ "Native American Policy". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on November 4, 2017. Retrieved February 6, 2018.
- ISBN 9781598841572.
- ^ a b c This article incorporates public domain material from The United States and the French Revolution, 1789–1799. United States Department of State. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
- ^ "Bastille Key". Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on August 5, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
- ^ George Washington Papers, Series 2, Letterbooks 1754 to 1799: Letterbook 22,- Aug. 24, 1790. - August 24, 1790, 1788. Manuscript/Mixed Material. https://www.loc.gov/item/mgw2.022/.
- ^ Hunt 1988, pp. 16–20
- ^ Hunt 1988, pp. 31–32
- ^ Hunt 1988, p. 2
- ^ Hunt 1988, pp. 30–31
- ^ Linton, Marisa (August 2006). "Robespierre and the Terror". History Today. Vol. 56, no. 8. London. Archived from the original on January 23, 2018.
- ^ "To George Washington from d'Estaing, 8 January 1784". Founders Online. Archived from the original on March 17, 2018. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-57003-911-9.
- ISBN 0226033392.
- ^ McDonald 1974 p.116
- JSTOR 2710583.
- S2CID 144089710.
- ^ Neuman, Simon (Winter 2000). "The World Turned Upside Down: Revolutionary Politics, Fries' and Gabriel's Rebellions, and the Fears of the Federalists". Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies. Penn State University Press. 67 (1): 5–20. Archived from the original on February 18, 2018.
- JSTOR 2144997.
- ISBN 9780786454075.
- ^ Foner, Philip S. ed.; The Democratic-Republican Societies, 1790–1800: A Documentary Sourcebook of Constitutions, Declarations, Addresses, Resolutions, and Toasts (1976).
- .
- ^ McDonald 1974 p. 119
- ^ Gary J. Schmitt, "Washington's proclamation of neutrality: Executive energy and the paradox of executive power." Political Science Reviewer 29 (2000): 121+
- ^ Olsen, Theodore B. "Application of the Neutrality Act to Official Government Activities" (PDF). United States Justice Department. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 26, 2017. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
- ^ Elkins & McKitrick 1995 pp. 356, 360.
- ^ McDonald 1974 pp. 126–127
- S2CID 144349420.
- ^ Chernow 2004, pp. 435–436
- ^ Herring 2008, pp. 74–75
- ^ a b c Baird, James (2002), "The Jay Treaty", The papers of John Jay, New York, New York: Columbia University Libraries, archived from the original on January 31, 2017, retrieved July 27, 2017
- ^ a b Wood 2009, p. 194
- ^ Knott, Stephen (October 4, 2016). "George Washington: Foreign Affairs". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on July 29, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ a b Combs 1970, p. 120
- ^ Combs 1970, p. 121
- ^ Combs 1970, p. 122
- ^ Wood 2009, p. 196
- ^ Larsen, Joan L. "Essays on Article I: Incompatibility Clause". The Heritage Guide to The Constitution. The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-300-11300-6.
- ^ "Nov 29, 1963: LBJ forms commission to investigate Kennedy assassination". This Day In History. New York: A&E Networks. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
- ^ Combs 1970, p. 127
- ^ Combs 1970, p. 158
- ^ Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic History of the American People (10th Ed. 1980)
- ISBN 978-0-691-14957-8.
- ^ a b c d e f "Jay Treaty". New York City, New York: The Lehrman Institute. Archived from the original on June 21, 2017. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
- ^ Miller 1960, p. 149
- ^ Morison 1965, p. 344
- ^ a b Sharp 1993, pp. 113–137
- ^ JSTOR 1918627.
- ^ a b Estes, Todd (2001). "The art of presidential leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty". Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. 109 (2): 127–158.
- ^ McDonald 1974 pp. 164–165
- ^ McDonald 1974 pp.169–170
- ^ "Jay Treaty". Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on August 1, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
- ^ McDonald 1974 p. 174
- ^ JSTOR 1902277.
- ^ "Quasi War". Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on August 1, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
- ^ Herring 2008, pp. 80–81
- ^ a b c Miller 1997, pp. 33–36
- ^ a b c Fowler 1984, pp. 6–9
- ^ a b Daughan 2008, p. 242
- ^ a b c Allen 2010, pp. 13–15
- ^ Daughan 2008, pp. 276–277.
- ^ a b Allen 1909, p. 42.
- ^ Howarth 1999, pp. 49–50
- ^ Daughan 2008, pp. 278–279.
- ^ Fowler 1984, pp. 16–17
- ^ Eisinger, Tom (July 12, 2015). "Pirates: An Early Test for the New Country". Pieces of History. Washington, D.C.: National Archives. Archived from the original on August 7, 2017. Retrieved August 6, 2017.
- ^ Roberts, Priscilla; Roberts, Richard (September 26, 2011) [Revised and expanded version; original article by Elizabeth Huff, August 2, 2011]. "The First Barbary War". Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia. Charlottesville, Virginia: Thomas Jefferson Foundation. Archived from the original on August 7, 2017. Retrieved August 6, 2017.
- ^ Allen 1909, p. 48.
- ^ "Yazoo Land Fraud". New Georgia Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on September 21, 2017. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
- ^ "Papers of Thomas Carr, principle in Yazoo land fraud, digitized". UGA Libraries. Archived from the original on January 22, 2018. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
- ^ Herring 2008, pp. 46–47
- ^ a b Ferling 2009, pp. 315–317
- ^ a b This article incorporates public domain material from Treaty of San Lorenzo/ Pinckney's Treaty, 1795. United States Department of State. Retrieved August 8, 2017.
- ^ "Pinckney's Treaty". Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on August 5, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
- JSTOR 2509900.
- ^ Herring 2008, p. 81
- ^ "Mississippi's Territorial Years: A Momentous and Contentious Affair (1798–1817) | Mississippi History Now". Missouri History Now (Missouri Historical Society). Archived from the original on January 22, 2018. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
- ^ "First Ladies National Historic Site". The National Park Service. Archived from the original on May 14, 2017. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
- ^ "The First, First Lady". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on June 18, 2017. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
- ^ "Levees (Receptions)". Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's Mount Vernon. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
- ^ a b Baker 1897 pp. 117–118, 178
- ^ Solomont, Elizabeth (June 30, 2006). "A Piece of History Stands Hidden on Brooklyn Bridge". The New York Sun. Archived from the original on September 30, 2015. Retrieved December 31, 2015.
- ^ a b "Presidential Residency in New York". Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on July 20, 2017. Retrieved July 18, 2017.
- ^ "The Presidents House: Freedom and Slavery in the Making of a New Nation". City of Philadelphia. Archived from the original on July 29, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
- ^ "History of the President's House Site – Independence National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved July 18, 2017.
- from the original on February 15, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2017.
- ^ "George Washington and Travel". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on July 6, 2017. Retrieved July 20, 2017.
- ^ Chernow 2010, p. 608
- ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 608–613
- ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 632–633
- ^ Chernow 2010, pp. 650–655
- ^ "Southern Tour". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Archived from the original on July 20, 2017. Retrieved July 20, 2017.
- ^ Morison 1965, p. 315
- ^ White, Jonathan (February 15, 2015). "North Carolina and Rhode Island: The 'Wayward Sisters' and the Constitution". The Imaginative Conservative. Retrieved May 8, 2018.
- ^ a b Murray, Jonathan. "Fayetteville Convention of 1789". NorthCarolinahistory.org An Online Encyclopedia. North Carolina History Project. Archived from the original on February 21, 2017. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
- ^ a b Vile 2005, p. 658
- ^ Bordewich 2016, pp. 178, 235
- ^ "The 14th State". Vermont History Explorer. Vermont Historical Society. Archived from the original on December 21, 2015. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
- ^ a b c "Official Name and Status History of the several States and U.S. Territories". TheGreenPapers.com. Archived from the original on August 14, 2009.
- ^ Harrison 1992, p. 21
- ^ "From Territory to State". Tennessee Secretary of State. Archived from the original on February 21, 2017. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
- ^ Ferling 2009, pp. 347–348
- ^ Chernow 2010 pp. 752–753
- ^ Hillman, Joseph. "Resignation of Military Commission". Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington. Mount Vernon, Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved November 9, 2021.
- ^ a b "September 19, 1796: Washington prepares final draft of farewell address". This Day In History. New York: A&E Networks. Archived from the original on July 1, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ a b c d "Washington's Farewell Address". New York City, New York: The Lehrman Institute. Archived from the original on August 8, 2017. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
- ^ Neale, Thomas H. (October 19, 2009). "Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress R40864. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 4, 2017. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- )
- ^ Sharp 1993, p. 139
- ^ a b Bomboy, Scott (September 19, 2016). "Five lessons we can learn from George Washington's Farewell Address". Constitution Daily. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: National Constitution Center. Archived from the original on August 8, 2017. Retrieved August 7, 2017.
- ^ a b c Spaulding 2001, pp. 19–32
- ^ Washington, George (September 19, 1796). "Washington's Farewell Address To The People Of The United States" (PDF). Senate Document No. 106–21, Washington, 2000. Washington, D.C.: 106th Congress 2nd Session. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 5, 2017. Retrieved August 7, 2017.
- ^ Wood 2009, p. 207
- ^ "Washington's Farewell Address". Washington, D.C.: Senate Historical Office, United States Senate. Archived from the original on December 6, 2017. Retrieved August 7, 2017.
- ^ a b This article incorporates public domain material from American Isolationism in the 1930s. United States Department of State. Retrieved August 7, 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-7006-1580-3.
- ^ "November 06, 1906: Teddy Roosevelt travels to Panama". This Day In History. New York: A&E Networks. Archived from the original on July 1, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ "United States Treaties". Library of Congress. April 24, 2017. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
- ^ a b Taylor, C. James (October 4, 2016). "John Adams: Campaigns and Elections". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on February 18, 2018. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
- ^ a b c d Smith 1962, pp. 898–899
- ^ a b c McDonald 1974, pp. 178–181
- ^ Hoadley 1986, p. 54
- ^ McDonald 1974, p. 183
- ^ Smith 1962, p. 902
- ^ Smith 1962, p. 914
- ^ "Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996". College Park, Maryland: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration. Archived from the original on July 20, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ "Rating the Presidents of the United States, 1789–2000: A Survey of Scholars in History, Political Science, and Law". www.fed-soc.org. Archived from the original on March 15, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- JSTOR 2657937.
- ^ Maranell, Gary M. (June 1970). "The Evaluation of Presidents: An Extension of the Schlesinger Polls". The Journal of American History. 57 (1): 104–113. JSTOR 1900552 Archived October 22, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.
- ISBN 0806521511.
- ^ "Presidential Historians Survey 2017" Archived March 1, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. C-SPAN. Retrieved February 4, 2018.
- ^ Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin S. (February 2024). "Official Results of the 2024 Presidential Greatness Project Expert Survey - PDF" (PDF). brandonrottinghaus.com. Retrieved February 18, 2024.
- ^ Lee, Michael (February 18, 2024). "New presidential rankings place Obama in top 10, Reagan and Trump below Biden". Fox News. Retrieved February 18, 2024.
- ^ McDonald 1974 p. 186
- ^ Steven, Knott (October 4, 2016). "George Washington: Life in Brief". Miller Center. Archived from the original on February 5, 2018. Retrieved February 4, 2018.
- ^ Chernow 2010 pp. 770–771
Bibliography
- Alden, John R. (1993). George Washington, a Biography. Norwalk: Easton Press. ISBN 9780807141083.
- Allen, Gardner Weld (1909). Our Naval War With France. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. OCLC 1202325.
naval war with france.
- Allen, Gardner Weld (2010) [1905]. Our Navy and the Barbary Corsairs. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. OCLC 911176707.
- Allen, William C. (2001). History of the United States Capitol – A Chronicle of Design, Construction, and Politics. Washington, DC: ISBN 0-16-050830-4. Archived from the originalon December 16, 2008. Retrieved July 30, 2017.
- Bailey, David M.; Kennedy, Lizabeth; Cohen, Thomas A. (2006). The American pageant: a history of the Republic (13th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-47927-9.
- Baker, William Spohn (1897). Washington After the Revolution: 1784–1799. p. 118. OCLC 34797089.
george washington Samuel Osgood House april 23-february 23.
- Barnes, Celia (2003). Native American Power in the United States, 1783–1795. ISBN 0-8386-3958-5.
- Bartoloni-Tuazon, Kathleen (2014). For Fear of an Elective King: George Washington and the Presidential Title Controversy of 1789. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-5298-7.
- ISBN 0-8447-3619-8.
- Bellfy, Philip C. (2011). Three Fires Unity: The Anishnaabeg of the Lake Huron Borderlands. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1348-7.
- Bordewich, Fergus M. (2016). The First Congress. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-45169193-1.
- Boyd, Steven R. (1994). "Chapter 5: The Whiskey Rebellion, Popular Rights, and the Meaning of the First Amendment". In Mainwaring, W. Thomas (ed.). The Whiskey Rebellion and the Trans-Appalachian Frontier. Washington, Pennsylvania: Washington and Jefferson College. pp. 73–84. OCLC 32005769.
- Chardavoyne, David Gardner (2012). United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan: People, Law, and Politics. Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-3720-2.
- ISBN 1-59420-009-2.
- Combs, Jerald A. (1970). The Jay Treaty: Political Battleground of the Founding Fathers. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. LCCN 70-84044.
- Craughwell, Thomas J.; Phelps, M. William (2008). Failures of the Presidents: From the Whiskey Rebellion and War of 1812 to the Bay of Pigs and War in Iraq. Beverly, Massachusetts: Fair Winds Press. ISBN 9780785830542.
- Crew, Harvey W.; Webb, William Bensing; Wooldridge, John, eds. (2015) [1892]. Centennial History of the City of Washington, D. C.: With Full Outline of the Natural Advantages, Accounts of the Indian Tribes, Selection of the Site, Founding of the City ... to the Present Time. Dayton, Ohio: United Brethern Publishing House. OCLC 612798983. Retrieved December 29, 2011.
- Daughan, George C. (2008). If By Sea: The Forging of the American Navy – From the American Revolution to the War of 1812. New York: Basic Books. OCLC 190876973.
- ISBN 978-0-19-509381-0.
- Ellis, Joseph (2016). "George Washington". In Gormley, Ken (ed.). The Presidents and the Constitution: A Living History. New York: New York University Press Press. pp. 17–33. ISBN 9781479839902.
- Ellis, Joseph J. (2000). ISBN 0-375-40544-5.
- ISBN 0-19-515924-1.
- ISBN 978-1-59691-465-0.
- OCLC 10277756.
- Harrison, Lowell H. (1992). Kentucky's Road to Statehood. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-1782-8.
- Herring, George (2008). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507822-0.
- Hoadley, John F. (1986). Origins of American Political Parties: 1789--1803. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-5320-9.
- Hogeland, William (2006). The Whiskey Rebellion: George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and the Frontier Rebels Who Challenged America's Newfound Sovereignty. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5490-2.
- Howarth, Steven (1999). To Shining Sea: A History of the United States Navy, 1775–1998. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0806130261.
- Hunt, Alfred N. (1988). Haiti's Influence on Antebellum America: Slumbering Volcano in the Caribbean. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ Press. ISBN 0-8071-1370-0.
- Ifft, Richard A. (1985). "Treason in the Early Republic: The Federal Courts, Popular Protest, and Federalism During the Whiskey Insurrection". In Boyd, Steven R. (ed.). The Whiskey Rebellion: Past and Present Perspectives. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 165–182. OCLC 11291120.
- Kent, Charles A. (1918) [Reprinted from the Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, v. 10, no. 4]. The Treaty of Greenville August 3, 1795. Springfield, Illinois: Schnepp and Barnes. LCCN 19013726. 13608—50.
- ISBN 978-0-684-86854-7.
- ISBN 978-0-7006-0359-6.
- ISBN 978-1-4000-6766-4.
- Miller, John C. (1960). The Federalist Era, 1789–1801. New York: Harper & Brothers. Universal Digital Library(2004-04-24).
- Miller, Nathan (1997). The U.S. Navy: A History (3rd ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: OCLC 37211290.
- LCCN 65-12468.
- Schecter, Barnet (2010). George Washington's America. A Biography Through His Maps. New York: Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-1748-1.
- Sharp, James Roger (1993). American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06519-1.
- Slaughter, Thomas P. (1986). The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier Epilogue to the American Revolution. New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505191-2.
- OCLC 36883390.
- Spaulding, Matthew (2001). "Chapter 2: The Command of its own Fortunes: Reconsidering Washington's Farewell address". In Fishman, Ethan M.; Pederson, William D.; Rozell, Mark J. (eds.). George Washington: Foundation of Presidential Leadership and Character. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. pp. 19–32. LCCN 00-069857.
- Unger, Harlow (2015). "Mr. President": George Washington and the Making of the Nation's Highest Office (paperback ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-82353-4.
- Vile, John R. (2005). The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding (Volume 1: A-M). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-669-8.
- Wood, Gordon S. (2006). Revolutionary Characters. London: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-093-9.
- Wood, Gordon S. (2009). Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815. Oxford History of the United States. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503914-6.
Further reading
- Bartoloni-Tuazon, Kathleen. For Fear of an Elective King: George Washington and the Presidential Title Controversy of 1789 (Cornell UP, 2014).
- Beirne, Logan. Blood of Tyrants: George Washington & the Forging of the Presidency (2013)
- Bassett, John Spencer (1906). The Federalist System, 1789–1801. Harper & brothers., older, detailed political history of the decade
- Chervinsky, Lindsay M. "The Historical Presidency: George Washington and the First Presidential Cabinet." Presidential Studies Quarterly 48#1 (2018): 139–152.
- Cronin, Thomas F., ed. (1989). Inventing the American Presidency. Lawrence, Kansas: ISBN 0700604065.
- Edling, Max M., and Peter J Kastor, eds. Washington's Government: Charting the Origins of the Federal Administration. (University of Virginia Press, 2021) .
- Edwards III, George C. "George Washington's Leadership of Congress: Director or Facilitator?." Congress & the Presidency (1961) 18#2 163–80.
- Ellis, Joseph J. (2004). ISBN 1-4000-4031-0.
- Elkins, Stanley M., and Eric McKitrick
- Ellis, Joseph J. (2004). "Inventing the Presidency". American Heritage. 55 (5): 42–48, 50, 52–53. ISSN 0002-8738.
- Fatovic, Clemen (2004). "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives". American Journal of Political Science. 48 (3): 429–444. JSTOR 1519908.
- Fishman, Ethan M. (2001). D. Pederson, William; Rozell, Mark J. (eds.). George Washington. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger. ISBN 0275968685.
- Freeman, Douglas S.George Washington: A Biography. 7 volumes, 1948–1957; vol 6–7 cover the presidency The standard scholarly biography, winner of the Pulitzer Prize. A single-volume abridgment by Richard Harwell appeared in 1968
- Grizzard, Frank E. Jr. (2002). George Washington: A Biographical Companion. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576070826.
- Gary L., Gregg II; Spalding, Matthew, eds. (1999). Patriot Sage: George Washington and the American Political Tradition. Wilmington, Delaware: ISI Books. ISBN 1882926382., essays by scholars
- Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History (3rd ed. 2002) online
- Higginbotham, Don, ed. (2001). George Washington Reconsidered. Charlottesville, Virginia: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0813920051. 336 pp.
- Holzer, Harold. The Presidents Vs. the Press: The Endless Battle Between the White House and the Media--from the Founding Fathers to Fake News (Dutton, 2020) pp 3–21. online
- Leibiger, Stuart. "Founding Friendship: George Washington, James Madison, and the Creation of the American Republic." U. Press of Virginia, 1999. 284 pp.
- Lipset, Seymour Martin. "George Washington and the founding of democracy." Journal of Democracy 9#4 (1998): 24–38.
- Millikan, Neal. "The Historical Presidency: The First President and the Federal City: George Washington and the Creation of Washington, DC." Presidential Studies Quarterly 47#2 (2017): 365–377.
- Miller, John C. The Federalist Era, 1789–1801 (1960), a major scholarly survey
- Miller, John C. Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox (1959), full-length scholarly biography; online edition
- Morris, Richard B. "The Origins of the Presidency." Presidential Studies Quarterly 17#4 (1987): 673–687. Online
- Nettels, Curtis P. The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815 (1962), A standard scholarly economic history
- Novotny, Patrick. The Press in American Politics, 1787–2012 (ABC-CLIO, 2014).
- Phelps, Glenn A. "George Washington and the Paradox of Party." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1989) 19#4: 733–745.
- Phelps, Glenn A. "George Washington and the Founding of the Presidency." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1987) 17#2: 345–363.
- Riccards, Michael P. A Republic, If You Can Keep It: The Foundations of the American Presidency, 1700–1800. (1987)
- Sheehan, Colleen (2004). "Madison V. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism And The Role Of Public Opinion". American Political Science Review. 98 (3): 405–424. S2CID 145693742.
- Spalding, Matthew. "George Washington's Farewell Address." The Wilson Quarterly v20#4 (Autumn 1996) pp: 65+.
- Starr, Nicholas C. "The Historical Presidency: Competing Conceptions of the Separation of Powers: Washington's Request for an Advisory Opinion in the Crisis of 1793." Presidential Studies Quarterly 45#3 (2015): 602–618.
- White, Leonard D. The Federalists: A Study in Administrative History (1956), thorough analysis of the mechanics of government in the 1790s
- Wood, Gordon S. "The Greatness of George Washington." Virginia Quarterly Review 1992 68(2): 189–207. ISSN 0042-675XFulltext: in Ebsco
- Wright; Robert E. Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic Praeger (2002)
Foreign policy
- DeConde, Alexander. "Washington's Farewell, the French Alliance, and the Election of 1796." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 43.4 (1957): 641–658. online
- Estes, Todd. "The Art of Presidential Leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty" Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 2001 109(2): 127–158. ISSN 0042-6636Fulltext online at Ebsco.
- Estes, Todd. The Jay Treaty Debate, Public Opinion, and the Evolution of Early American Political Culture. (2006)
- Harper, John Lamberton. American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy. (2004)
- Lang, Daniel C. Foreign Policy in the Early Republic: The Law of Nations and the Balance of Power (1986)
- McCoy, Drew R. "Republicanism and American Foreign Policy: James Madison and the Political Economy of Commercial Discrimination, 1789 to 1794." William and Mary Quarterly (1974): 633–646. online
- Reuter, Frank T. Trials and Triumphs: George Washington's Foreign Policy (1982)
- Smith, Robert W. Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy. (2004)