Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy
Date of election | November 8, 1960 |
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Transition start | November 9, 1960 |
Inauguration date | January 20, 1961 |
President-elect | John F. Kennedy (Democrat) |
Vice president-elect | Lyndon B. Johnson (Democrat) |
Outgoing president | Dwight D. Eisenhower (Republican) |
Outgoing vice president | Richard Nixon (Republican) |
Leader of the transition | Clark Clifford |
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Transitions | ||
Planned transitions
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35th President of the United States
Tenure
Appointments
Presidential campaign Assassination and legacy
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The
Kennedy placed
At the time, United States presidential transitions were far less elaborate than they have since developed to be in subsequent decades. Kennedy's transition was a volunteer-run operation. Preparations for the transition started in advance of the election, with Clark Clifford working on behalf of Kennedy to studying past presidential transitions and Richard Neustadt doing the same on behalf of the Democratic National Committee (DNC). After the election, Clifford led the transition and Neustadt continued as an advisor. Top officials of Kennedy's transition were largely individuals that had also been part of his presidential campaign, including Robert F. Kennedy, Larry O'Brien, Kenneth O'Donnell, Pierre Salinger, Sargent Shriver, Stephen Edward Smith, and Ted Sorensen, and Dick Donahue. The transition was largely funded by the DNC.
While Eisenhower and Kennedy each thought negatively of the other at the time of the transition, the two intended to avoid a rough, tension-filled transition akin to
Pre-election actions
A presidential transition was scheduled to occur after the
Planning for a prospective presidential transition by John F. Kennedy began in advance of the election. Clark Clifford and Richard Neustadt were placed in charge of these preparations.[2][3] The two largely acted independently of one another in researching presidential transitions and advising Kennedy on his potential transition.[3] Clifford worked directly for Kennedy, while Neustadt worked for the Democratic National Committee (DNC).[4]
Kennedy first began to talk with Clifford about his prospective presidential transition soon after winning the Democratic nomination at the
Neustadt had first been asked by
In mid-1960, Kennedy also announced the creation of a special defense and foreign policy committee led by Paul Nitze.[9]
Organization of the transition
United States presidential transitions were far smaller and more informal at the time Kennedy was elected than they have since become.[10] Kennedy based his transition operations largely out of his personal residence in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C.[10] He additionally held transition planning meetings at his home and other locations in Washington, including his U.S. Senate office, the Democratic National Committee offices, his former campaign headquarters in the Esso Building, Clark Clifford's law offices, and conference rooms at the Brookings Institution.[11] Serving the function of Kennedy's personal offices during the campaign was his Georgetown residence, his family's Palm Beach, Florida, residence, and the penthouse of the Carlyle Hotel.[11]
The post-election transition was headed by Clark Clifford, who worked with a handful of close associates of Kennedy.
As part of the transition,
Kennedy's transition effort had to request funding from the Democratic National Committee in order to pay its expenses.[10] Ultimately, the DNC provided most of the funding for the transition.[12]
Start of the transition
Kennedy, arguably, did not become president-elect of the United States until November 9, 1960, the day after the election. While The New York Times (among the first outlets to project Kennedy to be the victor) had projected Kennedy's victory shortly before midnight EST on election night,[20] many other prominent media outlets, such as NBC, waited until the morning of November 9 to project Kennedy as the victor.[21]
After Nixon
Kennedy held his first post-election press conference on November 9, where he discussed the transition and announced, for the first time, the names of several individuals that he had selected for his administration.[24] That same day, Kennedy received the memorandum that Clark Clifford had created for him.[4] The following day, Kennedy and his team held a staff meeting in which they went over the three separate memos created by Clifford, Neustadt, and the Brookings Institution.[25]
On November 14, Clifford met with Wilton Persons at the White House for their first face-to-face meeting to discuss the transition. During the meeting, Persons agreed to Clifford's request to have the Kennedy team send an office manager to examine the organizational structure of Eisenhower's White House. It was also at this meeting that the two scheduled the December 6 meeting between the president-elect and the outgoing president.
Intelligence briefings for the president-elect
At the November 14 meeting between Clifford and Persons, arrangements were made for Kennedy to receive briefings.[26] Kennedy afterwards received extensive daily briefings from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), including some delivered directly from Richard M. Bissell Jr. and Allen Dulles (Director of Central Intelligence).[9][26] Kennedy also received briefings from the State Department.[26] Among the subjects that the CIA briefed on Kennedy were covert plans against Fidel Castro of Cuba, as the CIA was planning what would ultimately become the Bay of Pigs Invasion.[9][30] In response to tensions with Cuba, in March 1960, the Eisenhower administration approved the training of a group Cuban exiles to lead an overthrow of Castro's government. These exiles would later unsuccessfully undertake the Bay of Pigs Invasion.[30] In 1987, historian Carl M. Brauer would fault the fiasco of the Bay of Pigs Invasion on Kennedy and his team having been too trusting of the bureaucratic experts in the government during the transition.[25]
Kennedy was given forewarning on certain Eisenhower administration actions during the transition. For instance, when Eisenhower decided on December 5 to put a pause on the nuclear arm negotiations that were taking place with the Soviet Union in Geneva, Secretary of State Christian Herter decided to inform Kennedy before informing the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union.[31]
Eisenhower's role in transition and his relations with Kennedy
The presidential transition marked a generational change in the presidency with the youngest person to win a United States presidential election succeeding Eisenhower, who at the time was the oldest man to have served as president of the United States.[32][33] Going into the transition, Kennedy and Eisenhower had both thought ill of one another, in large part due to conceptions of each other that were shaped by this generation gap.[32][33][34] However, Eisenhower, who had failed to run a smooth transition when he was president-elect, understood the costs of a poorly managed transition, and sought overall to help to make Kennedy's transition run smoothly.[33] Moreover, Kennedy also desired to avoid the sort of open antagonism that had been displayed between Eisenhower and Truman during Eisenhower's presidential transition. Kennedy understood that the despite his own harsh judgements of him, Eisenhower was still a popular figure in the opinion of the American public.[34] Eisenhower sent Kennedy a congratulatory message after the birth of the president-elect's son John F. Kennedy Jr. (born November 25, 1960), helping to break the ice between the two of them.[35][36]
During the transition, outgoing President Eisenhower held two meetings with Kennedy; one on December 6 and another on January 19.
Eisenhower thought that the Kennedy administration would blame him for its failures and take credit for Eisenhower's successes. He worried that any holdovers from his administration would be used as foils by the new administration. Eisenhower discouraged senior members of his own administration from accepting jobs in Kennedy's.[40] For example, when he discovered that C. Douglas Dillon, under secretary of state in the Eisenhower administration, was under consideration to be Kennedy's secretary of the treasury, Eisenhower urged Dillon not to accept the position, warning him that he would become a scapegoat to the "radicals" in Kennedy's administration. Eisenhower was angered when Dillon disregarded his advice and accepted the position.[40] Other Republicans were worried that Dillon holding this role would limit their ability to attack Kennedy on the economy.[41]
Eisenhower's White House executive clerk William J. Hopkins provided the Kennedy transition team with detailed briefing books on the incumbent White House staff, as well as maps illustrating the layout of the
Per later recounting by some officials involved, in the waning days of his presidency, Eisenhower invited Kennedy to play a role in decision-making on significant issues, but Kennedy declined the offer. Kennedy advisor Ted Sorensen would later write that Kennedy, "thought it was inappropriate, unwise, until he had full responsibility and information to participate in, commit himself to, or even comment or be consulted upon these actions being taken by the outgoing administration between election and inauguration – including a mission to
On January 3, with just more than two weeks left in his presidency, the
Kennedy and Johnson's resignations from the U.S. Senate
On December 22, Kennedy formally resigned his seat in the
Other activities of Kennedy
Early into the transition, Kennedy had a long vacation at a home owned by his father, Joseph P. Kennedy, in Palm Beach, Florida. His wife, Jacqueline, due to give birth in three weeks (to their son John F. Kennedy Jr.), did not join him, as she had been advised by her doctors against traveling to Florida.[51]
On November 11, Kennedy spoke by telephone with former president
On December 11, Kennedy avoided an assassination effort. That day, Richard Paul Pavlick delayed his planned assassination attempt and was apprehended by authorities four days later, before he could carry one out.[55][56][57]
On January 19, after his meeting with Eisenhower, Kennedy and his
Meeting of the presidential spouses
On December 9, Kennedy's wife Jacqueline received a tour of the White House from Eisenhower's wife Mamie.[59] This was marked by an unfriendly moment in the transition. Mamie Eisenhower was apparently unhappy with having her husband be succeeded by a Democrat, and herself being succeeded by a woman she held in low regard.[60] Despite Mrs. Kennedy having given birth to her son via caesarean section only two weeks earlier, Mrs. Eisenhower did not inform Kennedy that there was a wheelchair available for her to use on the tour.[60][61] Sensing Mrs. Eisenhower's displeasure during the tour, Mrs. Kennedy kept her composure while in Mrs. Eisenhower's presence, finally collapsing in private once she returned home. When Mamie Eisenhower was later questioned as to why she did not inform Mrs. Kennedy of the wheelchair available for her use, she simply stated, "Because she never asked."[61][62]
Selection of appointees
Kennedy spent the eight weeks following his election choosing his Cabinet and other top officials.
Some individuals declined positions in Kennedy's administration. Kennedy offered Robert A. Lovett a position in his Cabinet, but Lovett declined.[67] Additionally, Kennedy had originally offered the position of postmaster general to Congressman William L. Dawson, who also declined. Had he accepted this offer and been confirmed to the position, Dawson would have been first black Cabinet secretary in United States history.[41] To avoid creating a conflict of interest regarding their roles in the transition, both Clifford and Neustadt attempted to remove themselves from consideration for positions in Kennedy's administration.[25] However, before the end of the transition Neustadt ultimately would be designated to serve as the Kennedy White House's consultant on government organization.[68]
Ahead of the election, many correspondences were sent to Kennedy and the Democratic National Committee requesting appointments to government positions. Larry O'Brien was tasked with handling the management of such correspondence. In addition, Vice President-elect Johnson and his staff sent requests of their own for individuals they wanted to see appointed. Requests coming from Johnson and his office were forwarded to Dick Donahue.[69]
On December 17, Kennedy announced the last of his ten Cabinet designees, J. Edward Day for postmaster general.[70] John D. Morris of The New York Times News Service noted of Kennedy's Cabinet,
It is the first to include two Jews and the first to include a brother of the President and the first in which a member lists his occupation as "foundation executive". Its average age is 47, making it the youngest of the twenieth century but six years older than the first Cabinet of the first President, George Washington.[71]
The age of many members of the designated Cabinet was young.[71] The youngest designee was Robert F. Kennedy, at the age of 35. Robert F. Kennedy was to be the second-youngest United States attorney general, after only Richard Rush, who had been 33 when he assumed the office.[71] Despite concerns about nepotism, Kennedy's father successfully demanded that Robert F. Kennedy be chosen for this position.[72] Two of Kennedy's designees for his Cabinet would be the youngest holders of their designated Cabinet positions: Secretary of Agriculture-designate Orville Freeman (age 42) and Secretary of Defense-designate Robert McNamara (age 44).[71] Morris noted that Eisenhower's initial Cabinet had averaged a decade older in age than Kennedy's designated Cabinet.[71]
Kennedy, a
Kennedy rejected liberal pressure to select
In his White House staff, Kennedy did not choose a formal White House chief of staff. He instead preferred the idea of effectively acting as his own chief of staff.[75]
During his presidency, Eisenhower had created the first White House Office of Congressional Relations to oversee liaison between the White House and the legislature. Clark Clifford's memo had advised Kennedy not to carry this over into his White House, as he believed the vice president would serve as an effective-enough liaison between the president and the Congress. He also believed that the chairman of the Democratic National Committee and Democratic National Committee staff would be able to sufficiently sort out demands related to patronage coming from congressional Democrats, making such a liaison unnecessary for that concern.[4] In a November meeting between Kennedy and Richard Neustadt, the matter of congressional liaison had been discussed. In a December 7, 1960, follow-up paper that Neustadt had written recalled their discussion on this. This paper makes it evident that Kennedy had rejected the advice from Clifford to have the Democratic National Committee handle patronage concerns, and instead opted to have a senior aide do so in the function of a congressional liaison, making this one of the concerns that Larry O'Brien would be assigned to deal this in his position.[4]
Defense and foreign policy
- Robert McNamara, secretary of defense (announced December 13, 1960)[76]
- Dean Rusk, secretary of state (announced December 12, 1960)[77]
- United States ambassador to the United Nations (announced December 12, 1960)[77]
- Eugene M. Zuckert, secretary of the Air Force (announced December 28, 1960)[78]
- Elvis Jacob Stahr Jr. secretary of the Army[68]
- John Connally, secretary of the Navy (announced December 28, 1960)[79]
- Allen Dulles, director of the Central Intelligence Agency (announced November 9, 1960) incumbent officeholder[24]
- J. Edgar Hoover, director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (announced November 9, 1960) incumbent officeholder[24]
- national security advisor (announced December 31, 1960)[80]
- Roswell Gilpatric, deputy secretary of defense[68]
- Chester B. Bowles, under secretary of state[68]
- under secretary of state for economic affairs[81]
- Joseph V. Charyk, under secretary of the Air Force incumbent officeholder[68]
- G. Mennen Williams, assistant secretary of state for African affairs[68]
- Roger W. Jones, deputy under secretary of state for administration[68]
- Angier Biddle Duke, chief of protocol[68]
- Lyle S. Garlock, assistant secretary of the Air Force for financial management incumbent officeholder[68][82]
- James H. Wakelin Jr., assistant secretary of the Navy for research and development incumbent officeholder[68]
- deputy national security advisor[83]
- Soviet affairs[84]
- W. Averell Harriman, special ambassador at large[68]
- United States ambassador to India[84]
- United States ambassador to the United Kingdom[84]
- Herschel C. Loveless, member of the Federal Renegotiation Board[68]
- John J. McCloy, chief of the U.S. Disarmament Administration[68]
- George McGovern, director of Food for Peace[68]
Domestic policy
- Robert F. Kennedy, attorney general (announced December 16, 1960)[85]
- J. Edward Day, postmaster general (announced December 16, 1960)[41]
- Orville Freeman, secretary of agriculture (announced December 15, 1960)[86]
- Luther H. Hodges, secretary of commerce (announced December 8, 1960)[87]
- secretary of health, education, and welfare (announced December 1, 1960)[88]
- Stewart Udall, secretary of the interior (announced December 7, 1960)[89]
- Arthur Goldberg, secretary of labor (announced December 15, 1960)[86]
- Luther Terry, surgeon general (announced January 16, 1961)[90]
- Byron White, deputy attorney general (announced December 16, 1960)[91]
- W. Willard Wirtz, undersecretary of labor (announced January 8, 1961)[92]
- H. H. Brawley, deputy postmaster general[68]
- James K. Carr, under secretary of the interior (announced January 12, 1961)[52]
- Edward Gudeman, under secretary of commerce[68]
- solicitor general of the United States (announced December 28, 1960)[78]
- Robert C. Weaver, administrator of the Housing and Home Finance Agency (announced December 31, 1960)[80]
- chairman of the Federal Communications Commission[81]
- Rex Marion Whitton, administrator of the Federal Highway Administration[68]
- commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (announced December 16, 1960) incumbent officeholder[91]
- Floyd Dominy, commissioner of the United States Bureau of Reclamation (announced January 12, 1961) incumbent officeholder[52]
- John S. Gleason Jr., administrator of Veterans Affairs[68]
- Robert J. Burkhardt, assistant postmaster general for facilities[68]
- Ralph W. Nicholson, assistant postmaster general for finance[68]
- Frederick C. Belen, assistant postmaster general for postal operations[68]
- James M. Quigley, assistant secretary of health, education and welfare for federal and state matters (announced January 16, 1961)[90]
- Wilbur J. Cohen, assistant secretary of health, education, and welfare for legislative matters (announced January 16, 1961)[90]
- Boisfeuillet Jones, assistant secretary of health, education and welfare for health and medical affairs (announced December 31, 1960)[68][80]
- Kenneth Holum, assistant secretary of the interior for water and power (announced January 12, 1961)[52]
- John A. Carver Jr., assistant secretary of the interior for public lands management (announced January 12, 1961)[52]
- Jerry R. Holleman, assistant secretary of labor[68]
- James J. Reynolds, assistant secretary of labor (announced January 8, 1961)[92]
- George C. Lodge, assistant secretary of labor for international affairs incumbent officeholder[68]
- George Leon-Paul Weaver, special assistant to the secretary of labor (announced January 8, 1961)[68][92]
- Frank Barry, Department of the Interior solicitor general (announced January 12, 1961)[52]
- Charles Donahue, Department of Labor solicitor (announced January 8, 1961)[92]
- Department of Health, Education and Welfare[90]
- Glenn T. Seaborg, chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission (announced January 16, 1961)[68][90]
- Michael Monroney, United States Postal Service executive assistant for White House and congressional liaison[68]
Economic policy
- C. Douglas Dillon, secretary of the treasury (announced December 16, 1960)[85]
- Bureau of the Budget[68]
- Elizabeth Rudel Smith, treasurer of the United States (announced December 18, 1960)[93]
- Harry J. Anslinger, commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics incumbent officeholder[68]
- John M. Leddy, assistant secretary of the treasury for international affairs (announced January 16, 1961)[90]
- Bureau of the Budget[17]
- Walter Heller, chair of the Council of Economic Advisers[94]
- John E. Horne, administrator of the Small Business Administration[68]
- Henry H. Fowler, under secretary of the treasury[68]
- Robert Roosa, under secretary of the treasury for monetary affairs[68]
- Elmer B. Staats, deputy director of the Bureau of the Budget incumbent officeholder[68]
- Esther Peterson, director of the United States Women's Bureau and assistant to the Secretary of Labor (announced January 8, 1961)[92]
- Kermit Gordon, member of the Council of Economic Advisers[68]
- James Tobin, member of the Council of Economic Advisers[68]
- George Docking, director of the Export-Import Bank[68]
White House staff
- White House press secretary (announced November 9, 1960)[24]
- Andrew Hatcher, associate White House press secretary (announced November 9, 1960)[24]
- White House counsel (announced November 9, 1960)[24]
- Kenneth O'Donnell, secretary to the president (announced November 9, 1960)[24]
- White House Cabinet secretary[95]
- Ralph A. Dungan, White House staff secretary[68]
- Larry O'Brien, assistant to the president for Congressional relations[96]
- David Powers, special assistant to the president[97]
- James M. Landis, special assistant to the president[68]
- Timothy Reardon, administrative assistant to the president[68]
- Richard Neustadt, consultant on government organization[68]
Other
- John Moore, administrator of the General Services Administration[68]
- Bernard L. Boutin, deputy administrator of the General Services Administration[68]
- John Macy, chairman of the Civil Service Commission[68]
Impact on Kennedy's presidency
As his transition had, Kennedy's presidential administration would come to often consult Brookings Institution briefing papers.[98] In 1987, historian Carl M. Brauer would fault Kennedy's authorization of the failed the Bay of Pigs Invasion on Kennedy and his team having been too trusting of the bureaucratic experts in the government during his presidential transition.[25]
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- ^ Fleeson, Doris (25 Dec 1960). "Fred Dutton, Cabinet Aide, Has Most Challenging Job". Press-Telegram (Long Beach, California) – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ Dallek, p. 113
- ^ Dallek, p. 110
- ^ Lambert, Bruce (9 July 1992). "Robert Calkins, 89; Headed Brookings Institution". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
Works cited
- Brauer, Carl M. (1986). Presidential Transitions: Eisenhower Through Reagan. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195040511.
- Dallek, Robert (2013). Camelot's Court : Inside the Kennedy White House (First ed.). New York, New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 9780062065841.
- Shaw, John (2018). Rising Star, Setting Sun : Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and the Presidential Transition That Changed America (First Pegasus books cloth ed.). New York. ISBN 978-1681777320.)
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Further reading
- Memorandum on the transition by Clark Clifford (November 9, 1960) –John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
- PAPERS OF JOHN F. KENNEDY. PRE-PRESIDENTIAL PAPERS. TRANSITION FILES –John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
- EISENHOWER-KENNEDY MATERIALS –Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
- Historical Documents Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, Volume XXIV, Laos Crisis January–March 1961: Transition from the Eisenhower to the Kennedy Administration –United States Department of State