Primary election

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Primary elections
)

Primary elections, or direct primary are voting processes by which voters can indicate their preference for their party's candidate, or a candidate in general, in an upcoming general election, local election, or by-election. Depending on the country and administrative divisions within the country, voters might consist of the general public in what is called an open primary, or solely the members of a political party in what is called a closed primary. In addition to these, there are other variants on primaries (which are discussed below) that are used by many countries holding elections throughout the world.

The origins of primary elections can be traced to the

party congress, direct nomination by the party leader
, and nomination meetings.

Primary elections are typically held for offices that have a rigid term, such as a president, governor or member of a legislature. However, offices such as a prime minister, which can be replaced without recourse to a new election, typically do not have a dedicated primary election. However, a de facto primary for such offices may exist: for example, a leadership election, where party members elect the leader of their political party. In the vast majority of instances, a party's leader will become prime minister (in a national election) or premier/chief minister/first minister (in a province, state, territory, or other first-level administrative subdivision) should their party enter government with the most seats. Thus, a leadership election is also often considered to be one for the party's de facto candidate for prime minister or premier.

However, Prime Ministerial primaries have been held in inter-party electoral alliances, such as the 2021 Hungarian opposition primary, and also in cases where a single party opted to retain its leader but select someone else as its Prime Ministerial candidate, as the Portuguese Socialist Party has done in 2014.

The inverse may also happen; the Democratic Progressive Party in Taiwan automatically bestows the party's internal leadership on a sitting DPP president.

Types

General

Where primary elections are organized by parties, not the administration, two types of primaries can generally be distinguished:

  • Closed primary.[2] (synonyms: internal primaries, party primaries) In the case of closed primaries, internal primaries, or party primaries, only party members can vote.
  • Open primary.[3] All voters can take part in an open primary and may cast votes on a ballot of any party. The party may require them to express their support to the party's values and pay a small contribution to the costs of the primary.

United States

History

The direct primary became important in the United States at the state level starting in the 1890s and at the local level in the 1900s.[4] However, presidential nominations depended chiefly on state party conventions until 1972. In 1968, Hubert Humphrey won the Democratic nomination without entering any of the 14 state primaries. The Democrats set up the McGovern–Fraser Commission that rewrote the rules to emphasize primaries, and the Republicans followed suit.[5]

The first primary elections came in the Democratic Party in the South in the 1890s starting in Louisiana in 1892. By 1897 the Democratic party held primaries to select candidates in 11 Southern and border states. Unlike the final election run by government officials, primaries are run by party officials, making it easy to discriminate against black voters in the era of

Jim Crow. The US Supreme Court declared the white primary unconstitutional in Smith v. Allwright in 1944.[6]

The direct primary was promoted primarily by regular party leaders to obtain more party loyalty.[7] However progressive reformers like Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin also promoted them, Starting in 1890 La Follette led the successful fight, winning voter approval in a referendum in 1904.[8][9]

In the United States, various types can be differentiated:

Closed primary

  • People may vote in a party's primary only if they are registered members of that party prior to election day. Independents cannot participate. Because some political parties name themselves independent, the terms "non-partisan" or "unaffiliated" often replace "independent" when referring to those who are not affiliated with a political party. Thirteen states & Washington D.C., – Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming – have closed primaries.[10][11]

Semi-closed

  • As in closed primaries, registered party members can vote only in their own party's primary. Semi-closed systems, however, allow unaffiliated voters to participate as well. Depending on the state, independents either make their choice of party primary privately, inside the voting booth, or publicly, by registering with any party on Election Day. Sixteen states – Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Maine,[12] New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio,[13] Oregon, Rhode Island, Utah, and West Virginia – have semi-closed primaries that allow voters to register or change party preference on election day.[11][14] Massachusetts allows unenrolled voters or members of minor parties to vote in the primary of either major party, but registration or party changes must be done no fewer than 20 days prior to the primary.[15]

Open primary

  • A registered voter may vote in any party primary regardless of his or her own party affiliation. Fourteen states – Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Hawaii, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, South Carolina, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin – have open primaries.
    raiding may occur. Raiding consists of voters of one party crossing over and voting in the primary of another party, effectively allowing a party to help choose its opposition's candidate. The theory is that opposing party members vote for the weakest candidate of the opposite party in order to give their own party the advantage in the general election. An example of this can be seen in the 1998 Vermont senatorial primary with the nomination of Fred Tuttle as the Republican candidate in the general election[citation needed
    ]
    .

Semi-open

  • A registered voter need not publicly declare which political party's primary that they will vote in before entering the voting booth. When voters identify themselves to the election officials, they must request a party's specific ballot. Only one ballot is cast by each voter. In many states with semi-open primaries, election officials or poll workers from their respective parties record each voter's choice of party and provide access to this information. The primary difference between a semi-open and open primary system is the use of a party-specific ballot. In a semi-open primary, a public declaration in front of the election judges is made and a party-specific ballot given to the voter to cast. Certain states that use the open-primary format may print a single ballot and the voter must choose on the ballot itself which political party's candidates they will select for a contested office.

Blanket primary

  • A primary in which the ballot is not restricted to candidates from one party, and where the top candidate from each party advances to the general election.

Nonpartisan blanket primary

  • A primary in which the ballot is not restricted to candidates from one party, where the top two candidates advance to the general election regardless of party affiliation. Louisiana has famously operated under this system, which has been nicknamed the "jungle primary." California has used a nonpartisan blanket primary since 2012 after passing
    Proposition 14 in 2010, and the State of Washington has used a nonpartisan blanket primary since 2008.[16]

In the United States

The United States is one of a handful of countries to select candidates through popular vote in a primary election system;[17] most other countries rely on party leaders or party members to select candidates, as was previously the case in the U.S.[18]

The selection of candidates for federal, state, and local general elections takes place in primary elections organized by the public administration for the general voting public to participate in for the purpose of nominating the respective parties' official candidates; state voters start the electoral process for governors and legislators through the primary process, as well as for many local officials from city councilors to county commissioners.[19] The candidate who moves from the primary to be successful in the general election takes public office.

In modern politics, primary elections have been described as a vehicle for transfering decision-making from political insiders to voters, though political science research indicates that the formal party organizations retain significant influence over nomination outcomes.[20][21]

Non-partisan

Primaries can be used in

nonpartisan elections to reduce the set of candidates that go on to the general election (qualifying primary). (In the U.S., many city, county and school board elections are non-partisan, although often the political affiliations of candidates are commonly known.) In some states and localities, candidates receiving more than 50% of the vote in the primary are automatically elected, without having to run again in the general election. In other states, the primary can narrow the number of candidates advancing to the general election to the top two, while in other states and localities, twice as many candidates as can win in the general election may advance from the primary.[citation needed
]

Blanket

When a qualifying primary is applied to a partisan election, it becomes what is generally known as a blanket

minor parties from the general election, and frequently the general election becomes a single-party election. Unlike a plurality voting system, a run-off system meets the Condorcet loser criterion
in that the candidate that ultimately wins would not have been beaten in a two-way race with every one of the other candidates.

Because many Washington residents were disappointed over the loss of their blanket primary, which the

U.S. District Court for the Western District of Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court heard the Grange's appeal of the case in October 2007. In March 2009, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Grange-sponsored Top 2 primary, citing a lack of compelling evidence to overturn the voter-approved initiative.[23]

In elections using

vote for the weaker candidate
in order to face an easier general election.

In California, under Proposition 14 (Top Two Candidates Open Primary Act), a voter-approved

county central committee offices, all candidates running in a primary election regardless of party will appear on a single primary election ballot and voters may vote for any candidate, with the top two vote-getters overall moving on to the general election regardless of party. The effect of this is that it will be possible for two Republicans or two Democrats to compete against each other in a general election if those candidates receive the most primary-election support.[24][25]

Partisan

As a result of a federal court decision in Idaho,[26] the 2011 Idaho Legislature passed House Bill 351 implementing a closed primary system.[27]

Oregon was the first American state in which a binding primary election was conducted entirely via the internet. The election was held by the Independent Party of Oregon in July, 2010.[28]

Presidential primaries

In the United States,

primary election, respectively, and often give a candidate the momentum to win their party's nomination. Since 2000, the primary in South Carolina has also become increasingly important, as it is the first Southern state to hold a primary election in the calendar year.[29]

A criticism of the current presidential primary election schedule is that it gives undue weight to the few states with early primaries, as those states often build momentum for leading candidates and rule out trailing candidates long before the rest of the country has even had a chance to weigh in, leaving the last states with virtually no actual input on the process. The counterargument to this criticism, however, is that, by subjecting candidates to the scrutiny of a few early states, the parties can weed out candidates who are unfit for office.

The Democratic National Committee (DNC) proposed a new schedule and a new rule set for the 2008 presidential primary elections. Among the changes: the primary election cycle would start nearly a year earlier than in previous cycles, states from the West and the South would be included in the earlier part of the schedule, and candidates who run in primary elections not held in accordance with the DNC's proposed schedule (as the DNC does not have any direct control over each state's official election schedules) would be penalized by being stripped of delegates won in offending states. The New York Times called the move, "the biggest shift in the way Democrats have nominated their presidential candidates in 30 years."[30]

Of note regarding the DNC's proposed 2008 presidential primary election schedule is that it contrasted with the Republican National Committee's (RNC) rules regarding presidential primary elections. "No presidential primary, caucus, convention, or other meeting may be held for the purpose of voting for a presidential candidate and/or selecting delegates or alternate delegates to the national convention, prior to the first Tuesday of February in the year in which the national convention is held."[31] In 2028, this date is February 1.

Candidates for U.S. President who seek their party's nomination participate in primary elections run by state governments, or caucuses run by the political parties. Unlike an election where the only participation is casting a ballot, a caucus is a gathering or "meeting of party members designed to select candidates and propose policies".[32] Both primaries and caucuses are used in the presidential nomination process, beginning in January or February and culminating in the late summer political party conventions. Candidates may earn convention delegates from each state primary or caucus. Sitting presidents generally do not face serious competition from their party.

Primary classifications

While it is clear that the closed/semi-closed/semi-open/open classification commonly used by scholars studying primary systems does not fully explain the highly nuanced differences seen from state to state, still, it is very useful and has real-world implications for the electorate, election officials, and the candidates themselves.

As far as the electorate is concerned, the extent of participation allowed to weak partisans and independents depends almost solely on which of the aforementioned categories best describes their state's primary system. Open and semi-open systems favor this type of voter, since they can choose which primary they vote in on a yearly basis under these models. In closed primary systems, true independents are, for all practical purposes, shut out of the process.

This classification further affects the relationship between primary elections and election commissioners and officials. The more open the system, the greater the chance of raiding, or voters voting in the other party's primary in hopes of getting a weaker opponent chosen to run against a strong candidate in the general election. Raiding has proven stressful to the relationships between political parties, who feel cheated by the system, and election officials, who try to make the system run as smoothly as possible.

Perhaps the most dramatic effect this classification system has on the primary process is its influence on the candidates themselves. Whether a system is open or closed dictates the way candidates run their campaigns. In a closed system, from the time a candidate qualifies to the day of the primary, they tend to have to cater to partisans, who tend to lean to the more extreme ends of the ideological spectrum. In the general election, under the assumptions of the median voter theorem, the candidate must move more towards the center in hopes of capturing a plurality.

Europe

In Europe, primaries are not organized by the public administration but by parties themselves. Legislation is mostly silent on primaries. The main reason to this is that the electoral system used to form governments, be it proportional representation or two-round systems, lessens the need for an open primary.

Governments are not involved in the process; however, parties may need their cooperation, notably in the case of an open primary, e.g. to obtain the electoral roll, or to cover the territory with a sufficient number of polling stations.

Whereas closed primaries are rather common within many

European countries, few political parties in Europe already opted for open primaries[citation needed]. Parties generally organise primaries to nominate the party leader (leadership election
). The underlying reason for that is that most European countries are parliamentary democracies. National governments are derived from the majority in the Parliament, which means that the head of the government is generally the leader of the winning party. France is one exception to this rule.

Closed primaries happen in many European countries, while open primaries have so far only occurred in the socialist and social-democratic parties in Greece and Italy, whereas France's Socialist Party organised the first open primary in France in October 2011.

One of the more recent developments is organizing primaries on the European level. European parties that organized primaries so far were the European Green Party (EGP) and the Party of European Socialists (PES)

European Union

With a view to the

European elections, many European political parties
consider organising a presidential primary.

Indeed, the

Commission president
ahead of the next election in 2014, in order to allow voters to vote with a full knowledge of the facts. Many movements are now asking for primaries to designate these candidates.

  • In April 2004, a former British conservative MEP, Tom Spencer, advocated for American-style primaries in the European People's Party: "A series of primary elections would be held at two-week intervals in February and March 2009. The primaries would start in the five smallest countries and continue every two weeks until the big five voted in late March. To avoid swamping by the parties from the big countries, one could divide the number of votes cast for each candidate in each country by that country's voting weight in the Council of Ministers. Candidates for the post of president would have to declare by 1 January 2009."[33]
  • In July 2013
    European Commission president
    .
  • Following the defeat of the Party of European Socialists during the European elections of June 2009, the PES Congress that took place in Prague in December 2009 made the decision that PES would designate its own candidate before the 2014 European elections. A Campaign for a PES primary[36] was then launched by PES supporters in June 2010, and it managed to convince the PES Council meeting in Warsaw in December 2010 to set up Working Group "Candidate 2014" in charge of proposing a procedure and timetable for a "democratic" and "transparent" designation process "bringing on board all our parties and all levels within the parties".[37]

The European think-tank

Notre Europe also evokes the idea that European political parties should designate their candidate for Vice-President/High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs.[38] This would lead European parties to have "presidential tickets" on the American model.[original research?
]

Finally, the European Parliament envisaged to introduce a requirement for internal democracy in the regulation on the statute of European political parties. European parties would therefore have to involve individual members in the major decisions such as designating the presidential candidate.[39]

Armenia

On 24 and 25 November 2007, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation political party conducted a non-binding Armenia-wide primary election. The party asked the people of their recommendation of who they should nominate as their candidate for the upcoming presidential election. What characterized it as a primary instead of a standard opinion poll was that the public knew of the primary in advance, all eligible voters were invited, and the voting was by secret ballot. "Some 68,183 people . . . voted in make-shift tents and mobile ballot boxes . . ."[40]

France

The means by which the candidate of an established political party is selected has evolved. Until

Presidents
elected through direct election faced a competitive internal election.

  • The right didn't hold often primary elections to decide for their national candidates.
    • In 2007, Nicolas Sarkozy, President of the UMP, organized an approval "primary" without any opponent. He won by 98% and made his candidacy speech thereafter.
    • In 2016, The Republicans held, on 20 and 27 November, primaries to decide of their presidential candidate for 2017.
  • On the left however, the Socialist Party, which helped François Mitterrand gain the Presidency for 14 years, has been plagued by internal divisions since the latter departed from politics. Rather than forming a new party, which is the habit on the right-wing, the party started to elect its nominee internally.
  • Other parties organize membership primaries to choose their nominee, such as Europe Ecologie – Les Verts (EE-LV) (2006, 2011, 2016), and the French Communist Party in 2011.
  • At the local level, membership primaries are the rule for Socialist Party's candidates, but these are usually not competitive. In order to tame potential feud in his party, and prepare the ground for a long campaign, Sarkozy pushed for a closed primary in 2006 to designate the UMP candidate for the 2008 election of the Mayor of Paris. Françoise de Panafieu was elected in a four-way race. However, she did not clinch the mayorship two years later.

Germany

In Germany, top candidates for the federal election can be selected in primaries. For party leaders, however, the selection at delegate conferences is required by law. It is, nevertheless, possible to hold a non-binding primary.[42]

Top candidates

The Greens nominated their top candidates for the 2013 federal election (election of Jürgen Trittin and Katrin Göring-Eckardt) and for the 2017 federal election (election of Cem Özdemir and Katrin Göring-Eckardt) in a primary election by all party members (closed primary).

Primary elections are used much more frequently by parties at the regional than at the federal level.[43][44]

Party leaders

The first party to use a (non-binding) closed primary to select its party leader at the federal level was the SPD in 1993.[45] After the surprising resignation of Andrea Nahles, the SPD held another party primary to determine her successor in 2019. A dual leadership of Saskia Esken and Norbert Walter-Borjans was elected. The CDU used the procedure for the first time in 2021.[46] Friedrich Merz prevailed against two competitors Norbert Röttgen and Helge Braun in an online ballot of all CDU party members.

Hungary

A two-round primary election was held in Budapest, Hungary in 2019 between four opposition parties, to select a single candidate to the 2019 Budapest mayoral election.[47][48] A smaller primary was also held in the district of Ferencváros.[49]

For the 2022 parliamentary elections, the opposition parties organized a primary to select both their candidates for MPs and prime minister.[50]

Italy

Primary election were introduced in Italy to establish the centre-left candidates for 2005 regional election. In that occasion the centre-left The Union coalition held open primaries in order to select candidates for President of Apulia and Calabria. A more politically significant primary was held on 16 October 2005, when The Union asked its voters to decide the candidate for Prime Minister in the 2006 general election: 4,300,000 voters showed up and Romano Prodi won hands down. Two years later, on 14 October 2007, voters of the Democratic Party were called to choose the party leader among a list of six, their representatives to the Constituent Assembly and the local leaders. The primary was a success, involving more than 3,500,000 people across Italy, and gave to the winner Walter Veltroni momentum in a difficult period for the government and the centre-left coalition. The centre-right (see House of Freedoms, The People of Freedom, centre-right coalition and Forza Italia) has never held a primary at the national level, but held some experiments at the very local level.

Russia

The first primaries in the history of Russia were held in May 2000 in

St. Petersburg, the local branches of the parties Yabloko and the Union of Right Forces, who before the Gubernatorial
election offered citizens to choose a single candidate from the democratic opposition.

In 2007, before the parliamentary elections, United Russia held primaries in several regions. However, its results were not sufficiently taken into account when nominating candidates from the party. For example, the congress of United Russia included in the regional party list in the Samara region not the winners of the primaries, but those who did not even participate in the primaries.

In the same year 2007,

A Just Russia held the primaries to determine the candidate for the Gubernatorial election in Altai Krai
. Anyone could vote for them, for which special items were opened. However, in the future, A Just Russia did not begin to pursue the primaries.

In 2011,

All-Russian People's Front, held primaries for the nomination of candidates for the parlmentary election. This vote was called the "All-People's Primaries", but in fact it was not. Candidates for the primaries were selected by special committees. Not even all party members had the right to vote, but only about 200,000 specially selected electors. In addition, the results of voting on the primaries were in most cases ignored. Of the 80 lists of regional groups of candidates for the State Duma
, nominated by the congress of United Russia, only 8 lists coincided with the lists of winners of the primaries. All the same, the event played a role in the elimination of candidates: there were cases when the current deputies of the State Duma, having seen that they did not enjoy the support of electors, withdrew their candidacies.

In the future, United Russia has sometimes resorted to an "open" model of primaries, which allows voting to all interested voters. In 2014, in the primaries of the "United Russia" before the elections to the Moscow City Duma, any Muscovite could vote, and not only registered electors.

In 2016, the primaries for the selection of candidates for parliamentary elections were held by four parties: United Russia, People's Freedom Party,[51] the Party of Growth[52] and the Green Alliance.[53] The most massive were 22 May 2016 primaries of the United Russia, which could vote for every citizen who has an active electoral right. However, the primaries, as well as earlier, were not binding for the leadership of United Russia: a number of winners of the primaries were withdrawn by the leadership without any explanation of reasons, and in 18 single-seat constituencies the party did not nominate any candidates. A striking example was the Nizhny Tagil constituency, where the candidate from the United Russia was approved candidate, who took the 4th place in the primaries.[54] Finally, a number of candidates were included in the party list on the proposal of the party leader Dmitry Medvedev from among those who did not even participate in the primaries.

In 2017, the

primaries for the nomination of candidates for the presidential election. These are the first presidential primaries in the history of Russia. However, voting for candidates will take place via the Internet within three months, and, according to the spokesman of the party, the results of the primaries will not be mandatory for the nomination of the candidate and the party convention may nominate another candidate who does not even participate in the primaries, or even not nominate candidates and support President Vladimir Putin, if he decides to be re-elected.[55]

Poland

Poland

Portugal

United Kingdom

For the

Member of Parliament. Further open primaries were used to select some Conservative candidates for the 2015 general election, and there are hopes other parties may nominate future candidates in this way.[56][57]

In Canada

As in Europe, nomination meetings and leadership elections (somewhat similar to primary elections) in Canada are not organized by the public administration but by parties themselves.[58] Political parties participate in federal elections to the House of Commons, in legislative elections in all ten provinces, and in Yukon. (The legislatures and elections in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut are non-partisan.)

Local candidates

Typically, in the months before an anticipated general election, local riding associations of political parties in each electoral district will schedule and announce a Nomination Meeting (similar to a nominating caucus in the United States). Would-be candidates will then file nomination papers with the association, and usually will devote time to solicit existing party members, and to sign up new party members who will also support them at the nomination meeting. At the meeting, typically each candidate will speak, and then members in attendance will vote. The electoral system most often used is an exhaustive ballot system; if no candidate has over 50% of the votes, the candidate with the lowest number of votes will be dropped and another ballot will be held. Also, other candidates who recognize that they will probably not win may withdraw between ballots, and may "throw their support" to (encourage their own supporters to vote for) another candidate. After the nomination meeting, the candidate and the association will obtain approval from party headquarters, and file the candidate's official nomination papers and necessary fees and deposits with Elections Canada or the provincial/territorial election commissions as appropriate.

At times, party headquarters may overturn an association's chosen candidate; for example, if any scandalous information about the candidate comes to light after the nomination. A party headquarters may also "parachute" a prominent candidate into an easy-to-win riding, removing the need to have a nomination meeting. These situations only come up infrequently, as they tend to cause disillusionment among a party's supporters.

Party leaders

Canadian political parties also organize their own elections of party leaders. Not only will the party leader run for a seat in their own chosen riding, they will also become Prime Minister (in a federal election) or Premier (in a province or territory) should their party secure the confidence of parliament (usually by winning the most seats). Thus, a leadership election is also considered to be one for the party's de facto candidate for Prime Minister or Premier. If the party does not secure the confidence of parliament, but wins the next most amount of seats, the party leader will become Leader of the Official Opposition; if the party comes third or lower but maintains official party status, the leader will still be recognized as the leader of their party, and will be responsible for co-ordinating the activities and affairs of their party's caucus in the legislature.

In the past, Canadian political parties chose party leaders through an American-style delegated

New Democratic Party
), would then vote, again using the exhaustive ballot method, until a leader was chosen. Some provincial political parties retain the delegated convention format.

Lately, Canada's major political parties have moved to a "one member, one vote" system for their federal leadership elections. A leadership convention is still scheduled, but all party members have a chance to vote for the new leader. Typically, members may vote either in person at the convention, online, or through a mail-in ballot.

Instant-runoff voting is used in whole or in part to elect the leaders of the three largest federal

exhaustive voting, allowing each member to choose one format or the other for their vote (as was used in their 2017 leadership election). In 2013, members of the Liberal Party of Canada elected Justin Trudeau as party leader through IRV in a national leadership election.[60] The Conservative Party used IRV (where each of the party's 338 riding associations are weighted equally, regardless of how many members voted in each riding) to elect Erin O'Toole as party leader in 2020, Andrew Scheer in 2017, and Stephen Harper in 2004
.

Around the world

Americas

Asia

Oceania

  • Australia
    • The Australian Labor Party and the National Party have conducted limited experiments with primary-style pre-selections.[61][62]
    • In 2018, the New South Wales branch of the Liberal Party rejected a motion by former Prime Minister Tony Abbott to have primary-style preselections.[63]

See also

  • Leadership election, a similar process used to select the party's internal leadership instead of a candidate for external office
  • Sore loser law, which states that the loser in a primary election cannot thereafter run as an independent in the general election

Notes

  1. .
  2. ^ "Closed Primary Election Law & Legal Definition". USLegal.com. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
  3. ^ "Open Primary Law & Legal Definition". USLegal.com. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
  4. ^ Alan Ware, The American direct primary: party institutionalization and transformation in the North (Cambridge UP, 2002).
  5. ^ Karen M. Kaufmann, et al., "A Promise Fulfilled? Open Primaries and Representation," Journal of Politics 65#2 (2003): 457-476. online
  6. ^ Michael J. Klarman, "The White Primary Rulings: A Case Study in the Consequences of Supreme Court Decisionmaking". Florida State University Law Review (2001). 29#1: 55–107 online.
  7. ^ Ware, 2003.
  8. ^ Robert C. Nesbit, Wisconsin: A History (1973) 412-415.
  9. ^ Irvine L. Lenroot, Wisconsin Magazine of History 26#2 (1942), pp. 219–21. online
  10. ^ a b "State Primary Election Types". NCSL. National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
  11. ^ .
  12. ^ Meyers, David. "Maine joins list of states with open primaries". The Fulcrum. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
  13. ^ "Register to Vote and Update Your Registration - Ohio Secretary of State". www.sos.state.oh.us. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2018.
  14. ^ Dye, Thomas R. (2009). Politics in States and Communities. New Jersey: Pearson Education. p. 152.
  15. ^ "Registering to Vote". www.sec.state.ma.us. Retrieved 13 August 2020.
  16. ^ "History of Washington State Primary Systems" (PDF).
  17. ^ "Murphy Transcript".
  18. .
  19. .
  20. ^ Cohen, Marty. The Party Decides: Presidential Nominations Before and after Reform. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2008.
  21. .
  22. ^ "Blanket Primary Law & Legal Definition". USLegal.com. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
  23. ^ "WASHINGTON STATE GRANGE v. WASHINGTON STATE REPUBLICAN PARTY". 18 March 2008. U.S. Supreme Court. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
  24. ^ "California Secretary of State". Archived from the original on 18 January 2012.
  25. ^ McKinley, Jesse (9 June 2010). "Calif. Voting Change Could Signal Big Political Shift". The New York Times.
  26. ^ Republican Party v. Ysursa
  27. ^ Idaho Voter's Guide (PDF). idahovotes.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 January 2015. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
  28. ^ "E-voting? Not ready yet". oregonlive.com. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
  29. ISSN 0362-4331
    . Retrieved 29 January 2021.
  30. ^ "Democrats Set Primary Calendar and Penalties". The New York Times. 20 August 2006.
  31. ^ "GOP.com". Gop.com. Archived from the original on 30 November 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
  32. ^ Bardes, Barbara (2012). American Government and Politics Today: The Essentials 2011-12 Edition. Boston, MA: Wadsworth. p. 300.
  33. ^ (in English) Article by Tom Spencer in European Voice American-style primaries would breathe life into European elections 22.04.2004
  34. ^ "EGP announce innovative common campaign for European Elections". European Greens.
  35. ^ "Green Party Candidate Selection Infogram".
  36. ^ (in English) Website of the Campaign for a PES primary
  37. ^ (in English) Resolution of the PES Council in Warsaw, A democratic and transparent process for designating the PES candidate for the European Commission Presidency Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 2 December 2010
  38. ^ "Des réformes institutionnelles à la politisation – Ou comment l'Union européenne du Traité de Lisbonne peut intéresser ses citoyens" [From institutional reforms to politicization - Or how the European Union of the Lisbon Treaty can interest its citizens] (PDF) (in French). Les Brefs de Notre Europe. October 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
  39. ^ (in English) European Parliament press release, Constitutional Affairs Committee discusses pan-European political parties, 31 January 2011
  40. ^ "ARF conducts 'Primaries'". Horizon Armenian Weekly (English Supplement ed.). 3 December 2007. p. E1. A Yerkir agency report from the Armenian capital, Yerevan.
  41. ^ "Pour une primaire à la Française | Terra Nova". Archived from the original on 22 January 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
  42. doi:10.31219/osf.io/ys3r9. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help
    )
  43. .
  44. .
  45. .
  46. ^ "Germany's CDU opens up leadership vote to all members in bid to start 'afresh'". POLITICO. 2 November 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  47. ^ "Karácsony Gergely nyerte a budapesti előválasztás első fordulóját – percről percre a Mércén « Mérce". Mérce (in Hungarian). 3 February 2019. Retrieved 13 February 2020.
  48. ^ "Karácsony wins opposition primary for Budapest mayor". Budapest Business Journal. Retrieved 13 February 2020.
  49. ^ Dániel, Ács (16 August 2019). "Baranyi Krisztina nyerte a ferencvárosi előválasztást". 444. Retrieved 13 February 2020.
  50. ^ www.napi.hu. "Opposition primary starts in August". Napi.hu (in Hungarian). Retrieved 4 September 2021.
  51. ^ "Волна перемен". volna.parnasparty.ru.
  52. ^ "Предварительное голосование "Трибуна Роста" 2016". dvigrosta.ru. Archived from the original on 29 May 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
  53. ^ "Альянс Зеленых". russian-greens.ru. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
  54. ^ ""Единая Россия" отменила итоги праймериз в Нижнем Тагиле". УралИнформБюро.
  55. ^ "Члены Партии роста предложили Путину уйти с поста президента". РБК. 10 August 2017.
  56. ^ "GP wins Tory 'open primary' race". BBC News. 4 August 2009. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
  57. ^ "Tories test the mood in Totnes". BBC News. 4 August 2009. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
  58. .
  59. ^ "Liberals vote overwhelmingly in favour of one-member, one-vote". Liberal.ca. 2 May 2009. Archived from the original on 4 May 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
  60. ^ "What Comes Next in the Liberal Vote". Maclean's. 5 April 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
  61. ^ Holmes, Brenton (18 July 2011). "Pre-selecting candidates using US-style 'primaries'". Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
  62. ^ van Onselen, Peter (17 January 2009). "Nationals face up to primary challenge". The Australian. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
  63. TheGuardian.com
    . 10 February 2018.

References

  • Bibby, John, and Holbrook, Thomas. 2004. Politics in the American States: A Comparative Analysis, 8th Edition. Ed. Virginia Gray and Russell L. Hanson. Washington D.C.: CQ Press, pp. 62–100
  • Brereton Charles. First in the Nation: New Hampshire and the Premier Presidential Primary. Portsmouth, NH: Peter E. Randall Publishers, 1987
  • The Center for Election Science. Electoral System Summary
  • Cross, William P., Kenig, Ofer, Pruysers, Scott, and Rahat, Gideon. 2016. The promise and challenge of party primary elections: a comparative perspective. Montreal.
  • Hershey, Majorie. Political Parties in America, 12th Edition. New York: Pearson Longman, 2007. pp. 157–73
  • Jeremias, Ralf. "Primary Elections in the USA: Between Republicanism and Democracy". Topos. Journal for Philosophy and Cultural Studies, 1/2021, pp. 55-72.
  • Kendall, Kathleen E. Communication in the Presidential Primaries: Candidates and the Media, 1912–2000 (2000)
  • Primaries: Open and Closed
  • Palmer, Niall A. The New Hampshire Primary and the American Electoral Process (1997)
  • Scala, Dante J. Stormy Weather: The New Hampshire Primary and Presidential Politics (2003)
  • Ware, Alan. The American Direct Primary: Party Institutionalization and Transformation in the North (2002)], the invention of primaries around 1900 --they were promoted by regular party leaders as well as reformers online

External links