Prince Eugene of Savoy
Eugene of Savoy | |
---|---|
Born | Hôtel de Soissons, Paris, Kingdom of France | 18 October 1663
Died | 21 April 1736 Vienna, Archduchy of Austria, Holy Roman Empire | (aged 72)
Burial | |
House | Savoy-Carignano |
Father | Eugene Maurice of Savoy |
Mother | Olympia Mancini |
Signature | |
Military career | |
Rank | Field marshal |
Conflicts |
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Prince Eugene Francis of Savoy-Carignano
Born in Paris, Eugene was brought up in the court of King Louis XIV of France. Based on the custom that the youngest sons of noble families were destined for the priesthood, the Prince was initially prepared for a clerical career, but by the age of 19, he had determined on a military career. Based on his poor physique and bearing, and perhaps due to a scandal involving his mother Olympe, he was rejected by Louis for service in the French Royal Army. Eugene moved to Austria and transferred his loyalty to the Holy Roman Empire.
In a career spanning six decades, Eugene served three Holy Roman Emperors:
Throughout the late 1720s, Eugene's influence and skilful diplomacy managed to secure the Emperor powerful allies in his dynastic struggles with the Bourbon powers, but physically and mentally fragile in his later years, Eugene enjoyed less success as commander-in-chief of the army during his final conflict, the War of the Polish Succession. Nevertheless, in Austria, Eugene's reputation remains unrivalled. Although opinions differ as to his character, there is no dispute over his great achievements: he helped to save the Habsburg Empire from French conquest; he broke the westward thrust of the Ottomans, re-occupying areas that had been under Turkish control for a century and a half; and he was one of the great patrons of the arts whose building legacy can still be seen in Vienna today. Eugene died in his sleep at his home on 21 April 1736, aged 72.
Early years (1663–1699)
Hôtel de Soissons
Prince Eugene was born at the
Together they had had five sons (Eugene being the youngest) and three daughters, but neither parent spent much time with the children: the father, a French general officer, spent much of his time away campaigning, while Olympia's passion for court intrigue meant the children received little attention from her.[2] The King remained strongly attached to Olympia, so much so that many believed them to be lovers;[3] but her scheming eventually led to her downfall. After falling out of favour at court, Olympia turned to Catherine Deshayes (known as La Voisin), and to the arts of
From the age of ten, Eugene had been brought up for a career in the church since he was the youngest of his family.
Denied a military career in France, Eugene decided to seek service abroad. One of Eugene's brothers, Louis Julius, had entered Imperial service the previous year, but he had been immediately killed fighting the
Some future historians, good or bad, will perhaps take the trouble to enter into the details of my youth, of which, I scarcely recollect anything. They will certainly speak of my mother; somewhat too intriguing, driven from the court, exiled from Paris, and suspected, I believe, of sorcery, by people who were not, themselves, very great wizards.
They will tell, how I was born in France then left it, my heart swelling with enmity against Louis XIV who refused me a cavalry company, because, said he, I was of too delicate a constitution; that he refused me an abbey, because (based on I don't know what ill talks about me or what invented anecdotes from the gallery of Versailles) that I was more shaped for pleasure than for piety.
There is not a Huguenot expelled by the revocation of the edict of Nantes who hated Louis XIV more than I did. Therefore when Louvois[12] heard of my departure saying: "So much the better; he will never return into this country again" I swore never to enter it but with arms in my hands. I HAVE KEPT MY WORD.
— Memoirs of Prince Eugene, of Savoy, [13]
Great Turkish War
By May 1683, the Ottoman threat to Emperor
Although Eugene was not of Austrian extraction, he did have Habsburg antecedents. His grandfather, Thomas Francis, founder of the Carignano line of the House of Savoy, was the son of Catherine Michaela of Spain—a daughter of Philip II of Spain—and the great-grandson of the Emperor Charles V. But of more immediate consequence to Leopold I was the fact that Eugene was the second cousin of Victor Amadeus II, the Duke of Savoy, a connection that the Emperor hoped might prove useful in any future confrontation with France.[16] These ties, together with his ascetic manner and appearance (a positive advantage to him at the sombre court of Leopold I),[17] ensured the refugee from the hated French king a warm welcome at Passau, and a position in Imperial service.[16] Though French was his favoured language, he communicated with Leopold in Italian, as the Emperor (though he knew it perfectly) disliked French. But Eugene also had a reasonable command of German, which he understood very easily, something that helped him much in the military.[18]
I will devote all my strength, all my courage, and if need be, my last drop of blood, to the service of your Imperial Majesty.
Eugene had no doubt as to where his new allegiance lay, and this loyalty was immediately put to the test. By September, the Imperial forces under the Duke of Lorraine, together with a powerful Polish army under King John III Sobieski, were poised to strike the Sultan's army. On the morning of 12 September, the Christian forces drew up in line of battle on the south-eastern slopes of the Vienna Woods, looking down on the massed enemy camp. The day-long Battle of Vienna resulted in the lifting of the 60-day siege, and the Sultan's forces were routed. Serving under Baden, as a twenty-year-old volunteer, Eugene distinguished himself in the battle, earning commendation from Lorraine and the Emperor; he later received the nomination for the colonelcy and was awarded the Kufstein regiment of dragoons by Leopold I.[20]
Holy League
In March 1684, Leopold I formed the Holy League with Poland and Venice to counter the Ottoman threat. For the next two years, Eugene continued to perform with distinction on campaign and establish himself as a dedicated, professional soldier; by the end of 1685, still only 22 years old, he was made a Major-General. Little is known of Eugene's life during these early campaigns. Contemporary observers make only passing comments of his actions, and his own surviving correspondence, largely to his cousin Victor Amadeus, are typically reticent about his own feelings and experiences.[21] Nevertheless, it is clear that Baden was impressed with Eugene's qualities—"This young man will, with time, occupy the place of those whom the world regards as great leaders of armies."[22]
In June 1686, the Duke of Lorraine
Interlude in the west: Nine Years' War
Just as Belgrade was falling to Imperial forces under Max Emmanuel in the east, French troops in the west were crossing the Rhine into the Holy Roman Empire. Louis XIV had hoped that a show of force would lead to a quick resolution to his dynastic and territorial disputes with the princes of the Empire along his eastern border, but his intimidatory moves only strengthened German resolve, and in May 1689, Leopold I and the Dutch signed an offensive compact aimed at repelling French aggression.[26]
The
In Vienna, Eugene's attitude was dismissed as the arrogance of a young upstart, but so impressed was the Emperor by his passion for the Imperial cause, he promoted him to Field-Marshal in 1693.[30] When Carafa's replacement, Count Caprara, was himself transferred in 1694, it seemed that Eugene's chance for command and decisive action had finally arrived. But Amadeus, doubtful of victory and now more fearful of Habsburg influence in Italy than he was of French, had begun secret dealings with Louis XIV aimed at extricating himself from the war. By 1696, the deal was done, and Amadeus transferred his troops and his loyalty to the enemy. Eugene was never to fully trust his cousin again; although he continued to pay due reverence to the Duke as head of his family, their relationship would forever after remain strained.[31]
Military honours in Italy undoubtedly belonged to the French commander
Battle of Zenta
The distractions of the war against Louis XIV had enabled the Turks to
Leopold I had warned Eugene that "he should act with extreme caution, forgo all risks and avoid engaging the enemy unless he has overwhelming strength and is practically certain of being completely victorious",[36] but when the Imperial commander learnt of Sultan Mustafa II's march on Transylvania, Eugene abandoned all ideas of a defensive campaign and moved to intercept the Turks as they crossed the River Tisza at Zenta on 11 September 1697.
It was late in the day before the Imperial army struck. The Ottoman cavalry had already crossed the river so Eugene decided to attack immediately, arranging his men in a half-moon formation.[37] The vigour of the assault wrought terror and confusion amongst the Turks, and by nightfall, the battle was won. For the loss of some 2,000 dead and wounded, Eugene had inflicted an overwhelming defeat upon the enemy with approximately 25,000 Turks killed—including the Grand Vizier, Elmas Mehmed Pasha, the pashas of Adana, Anatolia, and Bosnia, plus more than thirty aghas of the Janissaries, sipahis, and silihdars, as well as seven horsetails (symbols of high authority), 100 pieces of heavy artillery, 423 banners, and the revered seal which the sultan always entrusted to the Grand Vizier on an important campaign, Eugene had annihilated the Ottoman army and brought to an end the War of the Holy League.[38] Although the Ottomans lacked western organization and training, the Savoyard prince had revealed his tactical skill, his capacity for bold decision, and his ability to inspire his men to excel in battle against a dangerous foe.[39]
After a brief terror-raid into
The Battle of Zenta proved to be the decisive victory in the long war against the Turks. With Leopold I's interests now focused on Spain and the imminent death of Charles II, the Emperor terminated the conflict with the Sultan; he signed the Treaty of Karlowitz on 26 January 1699.[42]
Middle life (1700–20)
War of the Spanish Succession
With the death of the infirm and childless Charles II of Spain on 1 November 1700, the succession of the Spanish throne and subsequent control over her empire once again embroiled Europe in war—the War of the Spanish Succession. On his deathbed Charles II had bequeathed the entire Spanish inheritance to Louis XIV's grandson, Philip, Duke of Anjou. This threatened to unite the Spanish and French kingdoms under the House of Bourbon—something unacceptable to England, the Dutch Republic, and Leopold I, who had himself a claim to the Spanish throne.[43] From the beginning, the Emperor had refused to accept the will of Charles II, and he did not wait for England and the Dutch Republic to begin hostilities. Before a new Grand Alliance could be concluded Leopold I prepared to send an expedition to seize the Spanish lands in Italy.
Eugene crossed the
Starved of supplies, money, and men, Eugene was forced into unconventional means against the vastly superior enemy. During a daring raid on Cremona on the night of 31 January/1 February 1702 Eugene captured the French commander-in-chief. Yet the coup was less successful than hoped: Cremona remained in French hands, and the Duke of Vendôme, whose talents far exceeded Villeroi's, became the theatre's new commander. Villeroi's capture caused a sensation in Europe and had a galvanizing effect on English public opinion. "The surprise at Cremona", wrote the diarist John Evelyn, "... was the great discourse of this week"; but appeals for succour from Vienna remained unheeded, forcing Eugene to seek battle and gain a 'lucky hit'.[47] The resulting Battle of Luzzara on 15 August proved inconclusive. Although Eugene's forces inflicted double the number of casualties on the French the battle settled little except to deter Vendôme trying an all-out assault on Imperial forces that year, enabling Eugene to hold on south of the Alps.[48] With his army rotting away, and personally grieving for his long-standing friend Prince Commercy who had died at Luzzara, Eugene returned to Vienna in January 1703.[49]
President of the Imperial War Council
Eugene's European reputation was growing (Cremona and Luzzara had been celebrated as victories throughout the Allied capitals), yet because of the condition and morale of his troops the 1702 campaign had not been a success.
As head of the war council Eugene was now part of the Emperor's inner circle, and the first president since
Blenheim
Dissension between Villars and the Elector of Bavaria had prevented an assault on Vienna in 1703, but in the Courts of
By early 1704 Marlborough had resolved to march south and rescue the situation in southern Germany and on the Danube, personally requesting the presence of Eugene on campaign so as to have "a supporter of his zeal and experience".[56] The Allied commanders met for the first time at the small village of Mundelsheim on 10 June, and immediately formed a close rapport—the two men becoming, in the words of Thomas Lediard, 'Twin constellations in glory'.[57] This professional and personal bond ensured mutual support on the battlefield, enabling many successes during the Spanish Succession war. The first of these victories, and the most celebrated, came on 13 August 1704 at the Battle of Blenheim. Eugene commanded the right wing of the Allied army, holding the Elector of Bavaria's and Marshal Marsin's superior forces, while Marlborough broke through the Marshal Tallard's center, inflicting over 30,000 casualties. The battle proved decisive: Vienna was saved and Bavaria was knocked out of the war. Both Allied commanders were full of praise for each other's performance. Eugene's holding operation, and his pressure for action leading up to the battle, proved crucial for the Allied success.[58]
In Europe Blenheim is regarded as much a victory for Eugene as it is for Marlborough, a sentiment echoed by Sir Winston Churchill (Marlborough's descendant and biographer), who pays tribute to "the glory of Prince Eugene, whose fire and spirit had exhorted the wonderful exertions of his troops."[59] France now faced the real danger of invasion, but Leopold I in Vienna was still under severe strain: Rákóczi's revolt was a major threat; and Guido Starhemberg and Victor Amadeus (who had once again switched loyalties and rejoined the Grand Alliance in 1703) had been unable to halt the French under Vendôme in northern Italy. Only Amadeus' capital, Turin, held on.
Turin and Toulon
Eugene returned to Italy in April 1705, but his attempts to move west towards Turin were thwarted by Vendôme's skilful manoeuvres. Lacking boats and bridging materials, and with desertion and sickness rife within his army, the outnumbered Imperial commander was helpless. Leopold I's assurances of money and men had proved illusory, but desperate appeals from Amadeus and criticism from Vienna goaded the Prince into action, resulting in the Imperialists' bloody defeat at the Battle of Cassano on 16 August.[60] Following Leopold I's death and the accession of Joseph I to the Imperial throne in May 1705, Eugene began to receive the personal backing he desired. Joseph I proved to be a strong supporter of Eugene's supremacy in military affairs; he was the most effective emperor the Prince served and the one he was happiest under.[61] Promising support, Joseph I persuaded Eugene to return to Italy and restore Habsburg honour.
The Imperial commander arrived in theatre in mid-April 1706, just in time to organize an orderly retreat of what was left of
Events elsewhere now had major consequences for the war in Italy. With Villeroi's crushing defeat by Marlborough at the
The Imperial victory in Italy marked the beginning of Austrian rule in Lombardy, and earned Eugene the Governorship of
Oudenarde and Malplaquet
At the beginning of 1708 Eugene successfully evaded calls for him to take charge in Spain (in the end Guido Starhemberg was sent), thus enabling him to take command of the Imperial army on the
Marlborough now favoured a bold advance along the coast to bypass the major French fortresses, followed by a march on Paris. But fearful of unprotected supply-lines, the Dutch and Eugene favoured a more cautious approach. Marlborough acquiesced and resolved upon the siege of
The recent defeats, together with the severe winter of 1708–09, had caused extreme famine and privation in France. Louis XIV was close to accepting Allied terms, but the conditions demanded by the leading Allied negotiators, Anthonie Heinsius, Charles Townshend, Marlborough, and Eugene—principally that Louis XIV should use his own troops to force Philip V off the Spanish throne—proved unacceptable to the French. Neither Eugene nor Marlborough had objected to the Allied demands at the time, but neither wanted the war with France to continue, and would have preferred further talks to deal with the Spanish issue. But the French King offered no further proposals.[75] Lamenting the collapse of the negotiations, and aware of the vagaries of war, Eugene wrote to the Emperor in mid-June 1709. "There can be no doubt that the next battle will be the biggest and bloodiest that has yet been fought."[76]
After the
Final campaigning: Eugene alone
In August 1709 Eugene's chief political opponent and critic in Vienna, Prince
Following the death of Joseph I on 17 April 1711 his brother,
Hoping to influence public opinion in England and force the French into making substantial concessions, Eugene prepared for a major campaign. But on 21 May 1712—when the Tories felt they had secured favourable terms with their unilateral talks with the French—the Duke of Ormonde (Marlborough's successor) received the so-called 'restraining orders', forbidding him to take part in any military action.[83] Eugene took the fortress of Le Quesnoy in early July, before besieging Landrecies, but Villars, taking advantage of Allied disunity, outmanoeuvred Eugene and defeated the Earl of Albermarle's Dutch garrison at the Battle of Denain on 24 July. The French followed the victory by seizing the Allies' main supply magazine at Marchiennes, before reversing their earlier losses at Douai, Le Quesnoy and Bouchain. In one summer the whole forward Allied position laboriously built up over the years to act as the springboard into France had been precipitously abandoned.[84]
With the death in December of his friend and close political ally, Count
Austro-Turkish War
Eugene's main reason for desiring peace in the west was the growing danger posed by the Turks in the east. Turkish military ambitions had revived after 1711 when they had mauled Peter the Great's army on the River Pruth (Pruth River Campaign): in December 1714 Sultan Ahmed III's forces attacked the Venetians in the Kingdom of the Morea.[89] To Vienna it was clear that the Turks intended to attack Hungary and undo the whole Karlowitz settlement of 1699. After the Sublime Porte rejected an offer of mediation in April 1716, Charles VI despatched Eugene to Hungary to lead his relatively small but professional army. Of all Eugene's wars this was the one in which he exercised most direct control; it was also a war which, for the most part, Austria fought and won on her own.[90]
Eugene left Vienna in early June 1716 with a field army of between 80,000 and 90,000 men. By early August 1716 the Ottoman Turks, some 200,000 men under the sultan's son-in-law, the Grand Vizier Damat Ali Pasha, were marching from Belgrade towards Eugene's position on the north bank of the Danube west of the fortress of Petrovaradin.[91] The Grand Vizier had intended to seize the fortress; but Eugene gave him no chance to do so. After resisting calls for caution and forgoing a council of war, the Prince decided to attack immediately on the morning of 5 August with approximately 70,000 men.[91][92] The Turkish janissaries had some initial success, but after an Imperial cavalry attack on their flank, Ali Pasha's forces fell into confusion. Although the Imperials lost almost 5,000 dead or wounded, the Turks, who retreated in disorder to Belgrade, seem to have lost double that amount, including the Grand Vizier himself who had entered the mêlée and subsequently died of his wounds.[91]
Eugene proceeded to take the Banat fortress of Temeswar in mid-October 1716 (thus ending 164 years of Turkish rule), before turning his attention to the next campaign and to what he considered the main goal of the war, Belgrade. Situated at the confluence of the Rivers Danube and Sava, Belgrade held a garrison of 30,000 men under Serasker Mustapha Pasha.[93] Imperial troops besieged the place in mid-June 1717, and by the end of July large parts of the city had been destroyed by artillery fire. By the first days of August, however, a huge Turkish field army (150,000–200,000 strong), under the new Grand Vizier Hacı Halil Pasha had arrived on the plateau east of the city to relieve the garrison.[94] News spread through Europe of Eugene's imminent destruction; but he had no intention of lifting the siege.[95] With his men suffering from dysentery, and continuous bombardment from the plateau, Eugene, aware that a decisive victory alone could extricate his army, decided to attack the relief force. On the morning of 16 August, 40,000 Imperial troops marched through the fog, caught the Turks unaware, and routed Halil Pasha's army; a week later Belgrade surrendered, effectively bringing an end to the war. The victory was the crowning point of Eugene's military career and had confirmed him as the leading European general. His ability to snatch victory at the moment of defeat had shown the prince at his best.[96]
The principal objectives of the war had been achieved: the task Eugene had begun at Zenta was complete, and the Karlowitz settlement secured. By the terms of the Treaty of Passarowitz, signed on 21 July 1718, the Turks surrendered the Banat of Temeswar, along with Belgrade and most of Serbia, although they regained the Morea from the Venetians. The war had dispelled the immediate Turkish threat to Hungary and was a triumph for Austria and for Eugene personally.[97]
Quadruple Alliance
While Eugene fought the Turks in the east, unresolved issues following the Utrecht/Rastatt settlements led to hostilities between the Emperor and Philip V of Spain in the west. Charles VI had refused to recognise Philip V as King of Spain, a title which he himself claimed; in return, Philip V had refused to renounce his claims to Naples, Milan, and the Netherlands, all of which had transferred to the House of Austria following the Spanish Succession war. Philip V was roused by his influential wife, Elisabeth Farnese, daughter of the Hereditary Prince of Parma, who personally held dynastic claims in the name of her son, Charles, to the duchies of Tuscany, Parma and Piacenza.[98] Representatives from a newly formed Anglo-French alliance—who were desirous of European peace for their own dynastic securities and trade opportunities—called on both parties to recognise each other's sovereignty. Yet Philip V remained intractable, and on 22 August 1717 his chief minister, Alberoni, effected the invasion of Austrian Sardinia in what seemed like the beginning of the reconquest of Spain's former Italian empire.[99]
Eugene returned to Vienna from his recent victory at Belgrade (before the conclusion of the Turkish war) determined to prevent an escalation of the conflict, complaining that, "two wars cannot be waged with one army";[99] only reluctantly did the Prince release some troops from the Balkans for the Italian campaign. Rejecting all diplomatic overtures Philip V unleashed another assault in June 1718, this time against Savoyard Sicily as a preliminary to attacking the Italian mainland. Realizing that only the British fleet could prevent further Spanish landings, and that pro-Spanish groups in France might push the regent, Duke of Orléans, into war against Austria, Charles VI had no option but to sign the Quadruple Alliance on 2 August 1718, and formally renounce his claim to Spain.[100] Despite the Spanish fleet's destruction off Cape Passaro, Philip V and Elisabeth remained resolute, and rejected the treaty.
Although Eugene could have gone south after the conclusion of the Turkish war, he chose instead to conduct operations from Vienna; but Austria's military effort in Sicily proved derisory, and Eugene's chosen commanders, Zum Jungen, and later
Later life (1721–36)
Governor-General of the Austrian Netherlands
Eugene had become governor of the
'Cold war'
The 1720s saw rapidly changing alliances between the European powers and almost constant diplomatic confrontation, largely over unsolved issues regarding the Quadruple Alliance. The Emperor and the Spanish king continued to use each other's titles, and Charles VI still refused to remove the remaining legal obstacles to Don Charles' eventual succession to the duchies of Parma and Tuscany. Yet in a surprise move Spain and Austria moved closer with the signing of the Treaty of Vienna in April/May 1725.[107] In response Britain, France, and Prussia joined together in the Alliance of Hanover to counter the danger to Europe of an Austro-Spanish hegemony.[108] For the next three years there was the continual threat of war between the Hanover Treaty powers and the Austro-Spanish bloc.
From 1726, Eugene gradually began to regain his political influence. With his many contacts throughout Europe Eugene, backed by Gundaker Starhemberg and
Despite the conclusion of the brief
In Britain there now emerged a new political re-alignment as the Anglo-French entente became increasingly defunct.[112] Believing that a resurgent France now posed the greatest danger to their security British ministers, headed by Robert Walpole, moved to reform the Anglo-Austrian Alliance, leading to the signing of the Second Treaty of Vienna on 16 March 1731.[113][114] Eugene had been the Austrian minister most responsible for the alliance, believing once again it would provide security against France and Spain. The treaty compelled Charles VI to sacrifice the Ostend Company and accept, unequivocally, the accession of Don Charles to Parma and Tuscany. In return King George II as King of Great Britain and Elector of Electorate of Hanover guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, the device to secure the rights of the Emperor's daughter, Maria Theresa, to the entire Habsburg inheritance. It was largely through Eugene's diplomacy that in January 1732 the Imperial diet also guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction which, together with the Treaties with Britain, Russia, and Prussia, marked the culmination of the Prince's diplomacy. But the Treaty of Vienna had infuriated the court of King Louis XV: the French had been ignored and the Pragmatic Sanction guaranteed, thus increasing Habsburg influence and confirming Austria's vast territorial size. The Emperor also intended Maria Theresa to marry Duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine which would present an unacceptable threat on France's border. By the beginning of 1733 the French army was ready for war: all that was needed was the excuse.[115]
War of the Polish Succession
In 1733 the Polish King and Elector of Saxony, Augustus the Strong, died. There were two candidates for his successor: first, Stanisław Leszczyński, the father-in-law of Louis XV; second, the Elector of Saxony's son, Augustus, supported by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The Polish succession had afforded Louis XV's chief minister, Fleury, the opportunity to attack Austria and take Lorraine from Francis Stephen. To gain Spanish support France backed the succession of Elisabeth Farnese's sons to further Italian lands.[116][117]
Eugene entered the War of the Polish Succession as President of the Imperial War Council and commander-in-chief of the army, but he was severely handicapped by the quality of his troops and the shortage of funds; now in his seventies, the Prince was also burdened by rapidly declining physical and mental powers. France declared war on Austria on 10 October 1733, but without the funds from the Maritime Powers — who, despite the Vienna treaty, remained neutral throughout the war — Austria could not hire the necessary troops to wage an offensive campaign. "The danger to the monarchy", wrote Eugene to the Emperor in October, "cannot be exaggerated".[118] By the end of the year French forces had seized Lorraine and Milan; by early 1734 Spanish troops had taken Sicily.
Eugene took command on the Rhine in April 1734, but vastly outnumbered he was forced onto the defensive. In June Eugene set out to relieve
Later years and death
Eugene returned to Vienna from the War of the Polish Succession in October 1735, weak and feeble; when Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen married in February 1736 Eugene was too ill to attend. After playing cards at Countess Batthyány's on the evening of 20 April until nine in the evening, he returned home to the Stadtpalais, his attendant offered him to take his prescribed medicine which Eugene declined.[121]
When his servants arrived to wake him the next morning on 21 April 1736, they found Prince Eugene dead after passing away quietly during the night.[122] It has been said that on the same morning he was discovered dead, the great lion in his menagerie was also found dead.[123]
Eugene's heart was buried with the ashes of his ancestors in Turin, in the Basilica of Superga.[121] His remains were carried in a long procession to St. Stephen's Cathedral, where his embalmed body was buried in the Kreuzkapelle.[124] It is said that the emperor himself attended as a mourner without anybody's knowledge.[121]
The Prince's niece Maria Anna Victoria, whom he had never met, inherited Eugene's immense possessions.[121] Within a few years she sold off the palaces, the country estates and the art collection of a man who had become one of the wealthiest in Europe, after arriving in Vienna as a refugee with empty pockets.[123]
Personal life
Being an Italian by descent, a Frenchman by birth, and a German by adoption, Prince Eugene signed himself appropriately using the trilingual form "Eugenio von Savoye" (Italian: Eugenio, German: von, French: Savoye).[125]
Eugene never married and was reported to have said that a woman was a hindrance in a war, and that a soldier should never marry; according to some of his contemporaries, Eugene's loss at the 1712 Battle of Denain was due to the presence of an Italian lady that he took with him on the campaign; this was confirmed by Voltaire who reported meeting the lady in question.[121] According to Nicholas Henderson, Eugene was called "Mars without Venus" for being a lifelong bachelor.[126] Winston Churchill in his biography of the 1st Duke of Marlborough described Eugene as "a bachelor, almost a misogynist, disdainful of money, content with his bright sword and his lifelong animosity against Louis XIV".[127]
During the last 20 years of his life Eugène had a relationship with one woman, Hungarian Countess Eleonore Batthyány-Strattmann, the widowed daughter of the former Hofkanzler Theodor von Strattman.[129] Much of their acquaintance remains speculative since Eugene left no personal papers: only letters of war, diplomacy, and politics.[130] Eugène and Eleonore were constant companions, meeting for dinner, receptions and card games almost every day till his death; although they lived apart most foreign diplomats assumed that Eleonore was his long time mistress.[131][132] It is not known precisely when their relationship began, but his acquisition of a property in Hungary after the Battle of Zenta, near Rechnitz Castle, made them neighbours.[133] In the years immediately following the War of the Spanish Succession she began to be mentioned regularly in diplomatic correspondence as "Eugen's Egeria"[128] and within a few years she was referred to as his constant companion and his mistress.[128] When asked if she and the Prince would marry, Countess Batthyány replied: "I love him too well for that, I would rather have a bad reputation than deprive him of his".[134]
Rumours about Eugene's sexual orientation can be traced back to his teenage years. It has since been established that the source of these rumours was
Being among the wealthiest and most celebrated figures of his era inevitably led to animosity for Eugene, as envy and malice trailed him from the battlefields to Vienna. His former subordinate Guido Starhemberg emerged as a persistent and bitter critic of Eugene's renown.[121] Starhemberg, according to Montesquieu, gained notoriety at the court of Vienna as Eugene's primary rival.[139] In a letter to a friend, Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg, another bitter rival who had served under Eugene in the War of the Spanish Succession, expressed disdain for the prince.[140] Schulenburg, whose ambitions to command the Austrian army had been thwarted by Eugene, wrote that the prince "has no idea but to fight whenever the opportunity offers; he thinks that nothing equals the name of Imperialists, before whom all should bend the knee. He loves la petite débauche et la p---- above all things.[141] German journalist Curt Martin Riess, reads it as "a testament to sodomy," while Eugene's primary biographer, German historian Max Braubach, interpreted "la p..." as referring to Paillardize (fornication), Prostitution, or Puterie, i.e. Whoring.[142]
During his tenure as Governor-General of the Austrian Netherlands, Eugene developed a reputation for frequenting an exclusive brothel on Amsterdam's Prinsengracht. The keeper of the establishment, known as Madame Therese, was familiar with Eugene's patronage. Notably, Eugene once brought the English consul in Amsterdam with him.[143] A drawing by Cornelis Troost, housed at the Rijksmuseum, the national museum of the Netherlands, illustrates a scene in which Prince Eugene had "the 'available' women parade in review, just as he did his own troops," according to the museum. Troost based his drawing on an anecdote circulating at the time.[144]
Eugene's other friends such as the papal nuncio, Passionei, who delivered the funeral oration of Prince Eugene, made up for the family he lacked. For his only surviving nephew, Emmanuel, the son of his brother Louis Thomas, Eugene arranged marriage with one of the daughters of Prince Liechtenstein, but Emmanuel died of smallpox in 1729. With the death of Emmanuel's son in 1734, no close male relatives remained to succeed the Prince. His closest relative, therefore, was Louis Thomas's unmarried daughter, Princess Maria Anna Victoria of Savoy, daughter of his eldest brother, the count of Soissons, whom Eugene had never met and had made no effort to do so.[145]
Patron of the arts
Eugene's rewards for his victories, his share of booty, his revenues from his abbeys in Savoy, and a steady income from his Imperial offices and governorships, enabled him to contribute to the landscape of Baroque architecture[146] Eugene spent most of his life in Vienna at his Winter Palace, the Stadtpalais, built by Fischer von Erlach. The palace acted as his official residence and home, but for reasons that remain speculative the Prince's association with Fischer ended before the building was complete, favouring instead Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt as his chief architect.[147] Eugene first employed Hildebrandt to finish the Stadtpalais before commissioning him to prepare plans for a palace (Savoy Castle) on his Danubian island at Ráckeve. Begun in 1701 the single-story building took twenty years to complete; yet, probably because of the Rákóczi revolt, the Prince seems to have visited it only once—after the siege of Belgrade in 1717.[148]
Of more importance was the grandiose complex of the two Belvedere palaces in Vienna. The single-storey Lower Belvedere, with its exotic gardens and zoo, was completed in 1716. The Upper Belvedere, completed between 1720 and 1722, is a more substantial building; with sparkling white stucco walls and copper roof, it became a wonder of Europe. Eugene and Hildebrandt also converted an existing structure on his Marchfeld estate into a country seat, the Schloss Hof, situated between the Rivers Danube and Morava.[149] The building, completed in 1729, was far less elaborate than his other projects but it was strong enough to serve as a fortress in case of need. Eugene spent much of his spare time there in his last years accommodating large hunting parties.[150]
In the years following the Peace of Rastatt Eugene became acquainted with a large number of scholarly men. Given his position and responsiveness, they were keen to meet him: few could exist without patronage and this was probably the main reason for
At Eugene's death his possessions and estates, except those in Hungary which the crown reclaimed, went to his niece, Princess Maria Anna Victoria, who at once decided to sell everything. The artwork was bought by
Historical reputation and legacy
Napoleon considered Eugene one of the eight greatest commanders of history.[156] Although later military critics have disagreed with that assessment, Eugene was undoubtedly the greatest Austrian general.[157] He was no military innovator, but he had the ability to make an inadequate system work. He was equally adept as an organiser, strategist, and tactician, believing in the primacy of battle and his ability to seize the opportune moment to launch a successful attack.[158] "The important thing", wrote Maurice de Saxe in his Reveries, "is to see the opportunity and to know how to use it. Prince Eugene possessed this quality which is the greatest in the art of war and which is the test of the most elevated genius."[159] This fluidity was key to his battlefield successes in Italy and in his wars against the Turks. Nevertheless, in the Low Countries, particularly after the battle of Oudenarde in 1708, Eugene, like his cousin Louis of Baden, tended to play safe and become bogged down in a conservative strategy of sieges and defending supply lines. After the attempt on Toulon in 1707, he also became very wary of combined land/sea operations.[73] To historian Derek McKay the main criticism of him as a general is his legacy—he left no school of officers nor an army able to function without him.[158]
Eugene was a disciplinarian—when ordinary soldiers disobeyed orders he was prepared to shoot them himself—but he rejected blind brutality, writing "you should only be harsh when, as often happens, kindness proves useless".[160]
On the battlefield Eugene demanded courage in his subordinates, and expected his men to fight where and when he wanted; his criteria for promotion were based primarily on obedience to orders and courage on the battlefield rather than social position. On the whole, his men responded because he was willing to push himself as hard as them. His position as President of the Imperial War Council proved less successful. Following the long period of peace after the Austro-Turkish War, the idea of creating a separate field army or providing garrison troops with effective training for them to be turned into such an army quickly was never considered by Eugene. By the time of the War of the Polish Succession, therefore, the Austrians were outclassed by a better prepared French force. For this Eugene was largely to blame—in his view (unlike the drilling and manoeuvres carried out by the Prussians which to Eugene seemed irrelevant to real warfare) the time to create actual fighting men was when war came.[161]
Although Frederick II of Prussia had been struck by the muddle of the Austrian army and its poor organisation during the Polish Succession war, he later amended his initial harsh judgements. "If I understand anything of my trade", commented Frederick in 1758, "especially in the more difficult aspects, I owe that advantage to Prince Eugene. From him I learnt to hold grand objectives constantly in view, and direct all my resources to those ends."[162] To historian Christopher Duffy it was this awareness of the 'grand strategy' that was Eugene's legacy to Frederick.[162]
To his responsibilities, Eugene attached his own personal values — physical courage, loyalty to his sovereign, honesty, self-control in all things — and he expected these qualities from his commanders. Eugene's approach was dictatorial, but he was willing to co-operate with someone he regarded as his equal, such as Baden or Marlborough. Yet the contrast with his co-commander of the Spanish Succession war was stark. According to Churchill, "Marlborough was the model husband and father, concerned with building up a home, founding a family, and gathering a fortune to sustain it", whereas Eugene, the bachelor, was "disdainful of money, content with his bright sword and his lifelong animosities against Louis XIV".[163] The result was an austere figure, inspiring respect and admiration rather than affection.[164]
Sicco van Goslinga, one of the Dutch field deputies who worked very close with Eugene during his campaigns with Marlborough, described him in his memoires as follows:
He had untameable courage and outdid himself during battle and in all undertakings where vigorous action was required. But he was less skilled in matters requiring brainwork, perseverance, prudence and constant attention, like when it was necessary to take up a defensive position, carefully supply it with everything necessary for its preservation and watch over its security. He was unable to concern himself with [logistical] ancillary matters, which are so necessary for the security of an army. It was said that he needed a new army every year, implying that he had little concern for the lives of soldiers.[165]
Memorials
Places and monuments
- A huge equestrian statue in the centre of Vienna commemorates Eugene's achievements. It is inscribed on one side, 'To the wise counsellor of three Emperors', and on the other, 'To the glorious conqueror of Austria's enemies'.[166]
- A prominent equestrian statue of Eugene sculpted by Franz Joseph I, which was ultimately never completed.[167]
- Prinz-Eugen-Kapelle, a chapel located at the northern corner of St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna[168]
- Prinz-Eugen-Straße a street in Vienna in use since 1890; Until 1911 a street in Döbling was also named Prinz-Eugen-Straße, since then the street connects Schwarzenbergplatz with the Wiedner Gürtel leading past the Belvedere Palace.[169]
- Strada Eugeniu de Savoya, a street in central part of Timișoara, Romania and the nearby house of Prinz Eugene of Savoy, built in 1817, over the old entrance gate of the Timișoara, used by the general when entering in the conquered city in 1716.
Warships
Several ships have been named in Eugene's honour:
- SMS Prinz Eugen, an Austro-Hungarian battleship of World War I launched in 1912
- SMS Prinz Eugen, an Austro-Hungarian Ironclad warship built in the 1870's
- SMS Prinz Eugen, an Austro-Hungarian Ironclad warship built in 1862
- HMS Prince Eugene, a Royal Navy monitor;
- Eugenio di Savoia, an Italian light cruiser
- German cruiser Prinz Eugen (later USS Prinz Eugen), a World War II heavy cruiser.
Other
- 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen, a German mountain infantry division of the Waffen-SS. It was formed in 1941 from Volksdeutsche volunteers and conscripts from the Banat, Independent State of Croatia, Hungary and Romania. It was initially named SS-Freiwilligen-Division Prinz Eugen (SS-Volunteer Division Prinz Eugen).[170]
- Panzer-Regiment 33, part of the 9th Panzer Divisionwas in 1943 officially redesignated Panzer-Regiment Prinz Eugen.
- Prinz Eugen von Savoyen Prize, a prize awarded by the Nazi era in Austria rewarding "ethnic German culture".[171]
Arms
Ancestry
Genealogy |
---|
See also
- Prinz Eugen, der edle Ritter
- 20 euro Baroque commemorative coin
- 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen
- Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden
- Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor
References
Citations
- ^ French: Eugène François; German: Eugen Franz; Italian: Eugenio Francesco
- ^ a b McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Somerset 2014, p. 252.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 9.
- ^ Bancks 1741, p. 2.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 9.
- ^ Orléans, Charlotte & Forster 1984, p. 2.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 10: the Duchess's remarks about Eugene were made years later, and only after Eugene had entered the service of France's sworn enemies, the Habsburgs.
- ^ Heer 2002, p. 228: This was a clear infringement of taboo which Louis could not tolerate. There is speculation of other reasons. Louvois, Louis' Secretary of State for War, detested Eugene's mother after she had rejected a proposed marriage between her daughter and his son.
- ^ Heer gives Eugene's departure date as 21 July 1683.
- ^ di Savoia, E. (1811). Mémoires du prince Eugène de Savoie écrits par lui-même (in French). chez Duprat-Duverger réimprimé à St.-Pétesbourg.
- Marquis de Louvois, French Secretary of State for War
- ^ a b de Ligne & Mudford 1811, p. 18.
- ^ Childs: Warfare in the Seventeenth Century, 133. Childs puts the number at 100,000; John Wolf, as high as 200,000.
- ^ Stoye 2007, p. 114.
- ^ a b Henderson 1964, p. 12.
- ^ Churchill 1933, p. 467.
- ^ The life of Prince Eugene of Savoy, Charles de Ligne
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 13.
- ^ MacMunn 1934, p. 32.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 22.
- ^ MacMunn 1934, p. 35.
- ^ Setton & American Philosophical Society 1991, pp. 287–289.
- ^ MacMunn 1934, p. 39: Leopold responded with a gift of a portrait of himself set in a diamond-encrusted frame
- ^ a b McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 27.
- ^ Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, pp. 192–193
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 33.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 32.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 33.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 34: "His promotion had as much to do with the lack of good Imperial commanders as much as Eugene's proven ability thus far. There were more than 20 other Field-Marshals in Imperial service at that time.
- ^ a b McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 37.
- ^ Setton & American Philosophical Society 1991, p. 390.
- ^ Spielman 1977, p. 165: Augustus II left for Kraków to contest the election for the Polish throne, vacant since the death of John III Sobieski the previous year.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 43.
- ^ Spielman 1977, p. 166.
- ISBN 978-1-4090-8682-6.
- ^ Coxe 1807, pp. 455–456.
- ^ Setton & American Philosophical Society 1991, pp. 401–402: Eugene lost 401 men and 28 officers killed, and 133 officers and 1,435 men were wounded.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 43.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 46.
- ^ Henderson 1964, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Coxe 1807, p. 457.
- ^ Wolf 1951, p. 59.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 60.
- ^ Coxe 1807, p. 483.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 67.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 64.
- ^ Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, 276
- ^ Spielman 1977, p. 188.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 66: "Eugene was in no doubt that the blame lay with Leopold and his ministry, namely Henry Mansfeld and Gotthard Salaburg.
- ^ Spielman 1977, p. 189.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 73.
- ^ Chandler 1989, p. 124.
- ^ Chandler 1989, p. 125.
- ^ Chandler 1989, p. 126.
- ^ Churchill 1933, p. 731.
- ^ Lediard: The Life of John, Duke of Marlborough, I, p. 199
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 87.
- ^ Churchill 1933, p. 865.
- ^ Coxe 1820, p. 15.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 94.
- ^ Coxe 1820, p. 17.
- ^ de Rouvroy duc de Saint-Simon, Norton & Brogan 1967, p. 1.
- ^ The Duke of Marlborough had supplied Eugene with 10,000 reinforcements, as well as a loan of £250,000.
- ^ Saint-Simon. Memoirs, 303
- ^ Churchill 2002, p. 182: Eugene took little interest in Milan: he never returned after 1707.
- ^ Coxe 1820, p. 28.
- ^ Chandler 1989, p. 199.
- ^ Eugene's army was made up almost entirely of Germans paid for by Britain and the Dutch Republic.
- ^ Churchill 2002, p. 350:It was also at this time that Eugene visited his mortally ill mother in Brussels for the last time. She died later that year in 1708.
- ^ Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, 319
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 162.
- ^ a b Chandler 1989, p. 224.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 117: "When King Louis XIV heard about Eugene's wound, he remarked, "I certainly don't want Prince Eugene to die but I should not be sorry if his wound stopped him taking any further part in the campaign."
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 121.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 171.
- ^ Chandler 1989, p. 249:Coxe says the citadel fell on 4 September. Chandler describes the siege as one of the hardest fought and least pleasant of modern history. This time, Marlborough conducted the siege while Eugene commanded the covering force.
- ^ Coxe 1820, p. 58.
- ^ Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 335
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 128.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, pp. 130–131.
- ^ Lynn gives the signing date as 1 May
- ^ Wolf 1951, p. 89: Although the Tory ministers did not inform Eugene of the restraining orders, they did inform Marshal Villars. In October 1712 the Tory government even communicated to the French what they knew of Eugene's war plans.
- ^ Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, pp. 352–354
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 154.
- ^ a b Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 357
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 145.
- ISBN 978-3-03919-327-1.
- ^ Coxe 1820, p. 100.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, pp. 159–160.
- ^ a b c Setton & American Philosophical Society 1991, p. 435.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 161.
- ^ Setton & American Philosophical Society 1991, pp. 438–439.
- ^ Coxe 1820, p. 102.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 165.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 166.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 221.
- ^ Coxe 1820, p. 106.
- ^ a b McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 170.
- ^ Coxe 1820, p. 108.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 172: "Isolated Spanish troops held on around Palermo till the end of 1719, while no expedition could even be attempted on Sardinia.
- ^ The Spanish Council consisted of Spaniards and Italians who had followed Charles VI from Spain after the Spanish Succession war. The most senior member of the council and an implacable enemy of Eugene was the Archbishop of Valencia, Antonio Folch de Cardona; but the most important members were Count Stella and the Marquis Ramon de Rialp. The council controlled Charles VI's lands in Italy.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 177.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 180: "Eugene was reluctant to leave his palaces and friends: it would probably have meant his resignation from his chief interest, the war council.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 186: "Prié stood down in the spring of 1725 to avoid dismissal.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 187.
- ^ Philip V and Elisabeth approached Austria to exploit Charles VI's isolation, and his differences with the Maritime Powers over the Ostend Company. They intended to conclude marriage alliances for their two sons to the Emperor's daughters, aiming to bring their children control of the Habsburg hereditary lands and most of Italy.
- ^ Hatton: George I, 274–275: Sweden, Denmark, and the Dutch Republic signed the Treaty of Hanover in 1727.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 213.
- ^ Coxe 1820, p. 139: The Allies failed to support Frederick William's claims to Jülich-Berg.
- ^ a b McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 219.
- ^ Simms 2009, p. 218.
- ^ Simms 2009, pp. 215–219.
- ^ Mckay & Scott 2014, p. 136.
- ^ McKay & Scott: The Rise of the Great Powers: 1648–1815, 136–137
- ^ Simms 2009, p. 231.
- ^ Mckay & Scott 2014, p. 141.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 228.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 239.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 240.
- ^ a b c d e f The Edinburgh Review 1862, p. 546.
- ^ The Edinburgh Review 1862, p. 545.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4090-8682-6.
- ^ a b McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 243.
- ^ Pope & Pattison 1878, p. 118.
- ^ "We also have to take account of the much-quoted dictum about Eugen, that he was a "Mars without Venus", It was really nothing more than a colourful way of saying that he never married".Henderson 1964, p. 239
- ^ Churchill 2014, p. 347.
- ^ a b c Henderson 1964, p. 240.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 157.
- ^ a b Monaldi & Sorti 2013, p. 535.
- ^ Haggard, A. (1906). The Real Louis the Fifteenthe ...: With 34... Portraits Including 12 Photogravure Plates. Hutchinson & Company.
- ^ There was one reference to another woman before Countess Batthyány; the Swedish minister in Vienna mentioned the Countess Maria Thürheim, but there is no evidence to verify this.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 239.
- ^ de Ligne & Mudford 1811, p. 249.
- ^ "Beware Princess Elisabeth Charlotte, Keeper of Versailles' Dark Secrets". Factinate. 4 March 2020.
- ^ Henderson 1964, pp. 9–10:The Duchess described Eugene as "a vulgar whore" who preferred a "couple of fine page boys" to any woman,
- ^ Wilhelm Ludwig Holland (ed), Briefe der Herzogin Elisabeth Charlotte von Orleans, Stuttgart, 1867
- ISBN 978-3-7017-4337-7.
- ^ Baron de Montesquieu 1894, p. 283.
- ^ Walsh, Littell & Smith 1840, p. 369.
- ^ Mitchell, J.; Schmitz, L. (1865). Biographies of Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries. W. Blackwood and Sons. p. 211.
- ISBN 978-3-85002-207-1.
- ^ van de Pol, van de Pol & Waters 2011, p. 2.
- ^ "Prince Eugene of Savoy Vetting a Line-up of Prostitutes, Cornelis Troost, 1720–1730". Rijksmuseum. 17 November 2020.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 203.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 189: "Eugene's presidency of the Imperial War Council was probably worth 100,000 gulden a year, while his governorships of Milan and the Netherlands were likely to have brought in 150,000 gulden annually.
- ^ There is no indication of a quarrel with Erlach, just a desired change in style. Hildebrandt had accompanied Eugene in Italy as his siege engineer in 1695–96 and made Imperial court engineer in 1701.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 193.
- ^ Eugene had purchased this land in 1726.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 195: "Maria Theresa brought the Schlosshof in 1755.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 199: "The German philosopher got to know the Prince during his visit to Vienna in 1714, trying to persuade Charles VI to found an Academy of Science.
- ^ Rousseau had not been long in the Netherlands before he joined the conspiracy to remove Eugene from the post of Governor-General.
- ^ Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 256. Amongst the list of artists who worked for Eugene was Italian, Giuseppe Maria Crespi.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. 259.
- ^ "Napoleon on Napoleon," page 31
- Napoleon Bonaparte.[155]
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, pp. 246–247.
- ^ a b McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 246.
- ^ De Saxe, Maurice. Reveries on the Art of War, p. 119
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, pp. 228–232.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 228.
- ^ a b Duffy, Frederick the Great: A Military Life, p. 17
- ^ Churchill 1933, pp. 774–775.
- ^ McKay, Baker & von Savoyen 1977, p. 248.
- ^ De Graaf 2021, p. 133.
- ^ Henderson 1964, p. xi.
- ^ van Tilburg, Kees. "Eugene of Savoy". Equestrian Statues. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
- ^ Austrian Academy of Sciences.
- ^ "Prinz-Eugen-Straße". Wien Geschichte Wiki (in German). 3 December 2020.
- ISBN 978-83-63678-18-0.
- ISBN 978-3-11-092938-6.
Bibliography
- McKay, D.; Baker, D.V.; von Savoyen, E.P. (1977). Prince Eugene of Savoy. Men in office. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-87007-5.
- Lediard, Thomas (1736). The Life of John, Duke of Marlborough. 3 Volumes. London
- de Rouvroy duc de Saint-Simon, L.; Norton, L.; Brogan, D.W. (1967). Historical Memoirs of the Duc de Saint-Simon: 1691–1709. H. Hamilton.
- OCLC 84903033
- OCLC 60068733
- Chandler, D.G. (1989). Marlborough as Military Commander. The commanders. Spellmount. ISBN 978-0-946771-12-7.
- Childs, John (2003). Warfare in the Seventeenth Century. Cassell. OCLC 50936157
- Churchill, W. (1933). Marlborough: His Life and Times. Volume I-[II]. G.G. Harrap.
- Churchill, W.S. (2014). Marlborough: His Life and Times, 1934. RosettaBooks. ISBN 978-0-7953-2991-3.
- Churchill, W. (2002). Marlborough: His Life and Times, Book Two. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-10636-6.
- Coxe, W. (1807). History of the House of Austria. Cadell.
- Coxe, W. (1820). History of the House of Austria. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme&Brown.
- Falkner, J. (2015). The War of the Spanish Succession 1701–1714. Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-78159-031-7.
- OCLC 48649409
- Henderson, N. (1964). Prince Eugen of Savoy, a Biography. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 978-1-84212-597-7.
- Lynn, J.A. (2013). The Wars of Louis XIV 1667–1714. Modern Wars in Perspective. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-89951-8.
- MacMunn, George (1933). Prince Eugene: Twin Marshal with Marlborough. Sampson Low, Marston & CO., Ltd. OCLC 2229365
- Monaldi, R.; Sorti, F. (2013). Veritas. Birlinn. ISBN 978-0-85790-570-3.
- Mckay, D.; Scott, H.M. (2014). The Rise of the Great Powers 1648–1815. The Modern European State System. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-87284-9.
- Mugnai, B. (2013). Imperial army in the age of Prince Eugene of Savoy. L'esercito imperiale al tempo del principe Eugenio di Savoia (1690–1720). Ediz. italiana e inglese. Soldiershop. ISBN 978-88-96519-62-2.
- Paoletti, Ciro (2006). "Prince Eugene of Savoy, the Toulon Expedition of 1707, and the English Historians-- A Dissenting View". The Journal of Military History. 70 (4): 939–962. S2CID 159792642.
- Pope, A.; Pattison, M. (1878). Pope. Essay on man, ed. by M. Pattison. Clarendon press series.
- van de Pol, L.C.; van de Pol, L.; Waters, L. (2011). The Burgher and the Whore: Prostitution in Early Modern Amsterdam. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-921140-1.
- Setton, K.M.; American Philosophical Society (1991). Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century. American Philosophical Society: Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 978-0-87169-192-7.
- de Ligne, C.J.; Mudford, W. (1811). Memoirs of Prince Eugene, of Savoy. Translated from the French by William Mudford. Sherwood, Neely, and Jones.
- Simms, B. (2009). Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire, 1714–1783. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-0-14-028984-8.
- Somerset, A. (2014). The Affair of the Poisons: Murder, Infanticide, and Satanism at the Court of Louis XIV. St. Martin's Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4668-6280-7.
- Stoye, J. (2007). The Siege of Vienna. Birlinn. ISBN 978-1-84341-037-9.
- Sweet, Paul R. (1951). "Prince Eugene of Savoy and Central Europe". The American Historical Review. 57 (1): 47–62. JSTOR 1849477.
- Sweet, Paul R. (1966). "Prince Eugene of Savoy: Two New Biographies". The Journal of Modern History. 38 (2): 181–186. S2CID 144274964.
- Upton, G. (2017). Prince Eugene of Savoy. Jovian Press. ISBN 978-1-5378-1165-9.
- Wolf, J.B. (1951). The Emergence of the Great Powers.
- The Edinburgh Review. Early British periodicals. Longmans, Green & Company. 1862.
- Spielman, J.P. (1977). Leopold I of Austria. Men in office. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-0836-8.
- MacMunn, G.F. (1934). Prince Eugene: Twin Marshal with Marlborough. S. Low, Marston.
- Heer, F. (2002). The Holy Roman Empire. A Phoenix Press paperback. Phoenix. ISBN 978-1-84212-600-4.
- Bancks, J. (1741). The History of Francis-Eugene, Prince of Savoy. J. Hodges.
- Orléans, C.E.; Charlotte, E.; Forster, E. (1984). A Woman's Life in the Court of the Sun King: Letters of Liselotte Von Der Pfalz, Elisabeth Charlotte, Duchesse D'Orléans, 1652–1722. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5635-8.
- Walsh, R.; Littell, E.; Smith, J.J. (1840). The Museum of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art. E. Littell & T. Holden.
- Baron de Montesquieu, C. (1894). Voyages de Montesquieu. Collection bordelaise des inédits de Montesquieu (in French). Impr. G. Gounouilhou.
- De Graaf, Ronald (2021). Friso: het tragische leven van Johan Willem Friso [Friso: the tragic life of John William Friso] (in Dutch). Boom. ISBN 978-90-2443-676-7.
Websites
- "Stephansdom, Prinz-Eugen-Grabmal". Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften (in German). Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2020.
Further reading
- of Savoy, Prince Eugene (13 March 2011). Memoirs of Prince Eugene, of Savoy. Written by himself [Translated from the French by William Mudford] (Public Domain ed.). Printed for Sherwood, Neely, and Jones. .
- von Arneth, Alfred ritter (1864). Prince Eugene of Savoy: years. 1663–1707. Prince Eugene of Savoy: According to the handwritten sources of the Imperial Archives (in German). Braumüller.
- von Arneth, Alfred ritter (1858). Prince Eugene of Savoy:years. 1708–1718. Prince Eugene of Savoy: According to the handwritten sources of the Imperial Archives (in German). Braumüller.
- von Arneth, Alfred ritter (1858). Prince Eugene of Savoy: years. 1719–1736. Prince Eugene of Savoy: According to the handwritten sources of the Imperial Archives (in German). Braumüller.
- Braubach, M. (1965). Prince Eugene of Savoy: Ascent. Prinz Eugen Von Savoyen: Eine Biographie (in German). R. Oldenbourg.
- Braubach, M. (1963). Prince Eugene of Savoy: Man and Fate. Prinz Eugen Von Savoyen: Eine Biographie (in German). R. Oldenbourg.
- Braubach, M. (1965). Prince Eugene of Savoy: The General (in German). R. Oldenbourg.
- Braubach, M. (1963). Prinz Eugen von Savoyen: To the peak of fame. Prinz Eugen Von Savoyen: Eine Biographie (in German). R. Oldenbourg.
- Braubach, M. (1965). Prince Eugene of Savoy: The statesman (in German). R. Oldenbourg.