Kingdom of Mysore

Coordinates: 12°18′N 76°39′E / 12.30°N 76.65°E / 12.30; 76.65
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(Redirected from
Princely State of Mysore
)

Kingdom of Mysore
1399–1950
Coat of arms of
Coat of arms
Anthem: "ಕಾಯೌ ಶ್ರೀ ಗೌರಿ"
"Kayou Sri Gowri"
(1868–1950)
(English: "Great Gowri")
  The Kingdom of Mysore during the reign of Tipu Sultan, 1784 AD (at its greatest extent)
StatusKingdom (Subordinate to Vijayanagara Empire until 1565)
under a subsidiary alliance with the British Crown from 1799
Princely state under the British Crown from 1831
CapitalMysore, Srirangapatna
Official languagesKannada, Persian
Religion
Hinduism, Islam
Demonym(s)Mysoreans
GovernmentMonarchy
Maharaja 
• 1399–1423 (first)
Yaduraya Wodeyar
• 1940–1950 (last)
Jayachamaraja Wodeyar
Diwan
 
• 1782–1811 (first)
Purnaiah
• 1946–1949 (last)
Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar
History 
• Established
1399
• Earliest records
1551
• 
Maratha–Mysore War
1759–1787
• Disestablished
1950
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Vijayanagara Empire
Mysore State
Today part ofIndia
Admiral Suffren meeting with ally Hyder Ali
in 1783. J. B. Morret engraving, 1789

The Kingdom of Mysore was a realm in the southern part of

Rajapramukh until 1956, when he became the first governor
of the reformed state.

The kingdom, which was founded and ruled for the most part by the Hindu

Wodeyar family, initially served as feudatories under the Vijayanagara Empire.[2] The 17th century saw a steady expansion of its territory and during the rule of Narasaraja Wodeyar I and Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, the kingdom annexed large expanses of what is now southern Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu to become a powerful state in the southern Deccan. During a brief Muslim rule, the kingdom shifted to a Sultanate style of administration under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, and was renamed the "Sultanat-e-Khudadad", translating into "The God gifted empire".[3][4]

Tipu's Tiger with the organ keyboard visible

During this time, it came into conflict with the

Kingdom of Travancore and the British, which culminated in the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. Success in the First Anglo-Mysore war and stalemate in the Second was followed by defeats in the Third and the Fourth. Following Tipu Sultan's death in the fourth war in the Siege of Seringapatam (1799), large parts of his kingdom were annexed by the British, which signalled the end of a period of Mysorean hegemony over South India. The British restored the Wodeyars to their throne by way of a subsidiary alliance and the diminished Mysore was transformed into a princely state. The Wodeyars continued to rule the state until Indian independence in 1947, when Mysore acceded to the Union of India
.

Even as a princely state, Mysore came to be counted among the more developed and urbanised regions of South Asia. This period (1799–1947) also saw Mysore emerge as one of the important centres of art and culture in India. The Mysore kings were not only accomplished exponents of the fine arts and men of letters, they were enthusiastic patrons as well. Their legacies continue to influence music and the arts even today, as well as rocket science with the use of Mysorean rockets.[5]

History

Early history

Main article: Origin of the Kingdom of Mysore
Kingdom of Mysore (1704) during the rule of King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar

Sources for the history of the kingdom include numerous extant

Kannada: ಒಡೆಯರ್, romanized: Oḍeyar, lit. 'lord'), which the ensuing dynasty retained.[14] The first unambiguous mention of the Wodeyar family is in 16th century Kannada literature from the reign of the Vijayanagara king Achyuta Deva Raya (1529–1542); the earliest available inscription, issued by the Wodeyars themselves, dates to the rule of the petty chief Timmaraja II in 1551.[15]

Autonomy: advances and reversals

The kings who followed ruled as vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire until the decline of the latter in 1565. By this time, the kingdom had expanded to thirty-three villages protected by a force of 300 soldiers.[16] King Timmaraja II conquered some surrounding chiefdoms,[17] and King Bola Chamaraja IV (lit, "Bald"), the first ruler of any political significance among them, withheld tribute to the nominal Vijayanagara monarch Aravidu Ramaraya.[18] After the death of Aravidu Ramaraya, the Wodeyars began to assert themselves further and King Raja Wodeyar I wrested control of Srirangapatna from the Vijayanagara governor (Mahamandaleshvara) Aravidu Tirumalla – a development which elicited, if only ex post facto, the tacit approval of Venkatapati Raya, the incumbent king of the diminished Vijayanagar Empire ruling from Chandragiri.[19] Raja Wodeyar I's reign also saw territorial expansion with the annexation of Channapatna to the north from Jaggadeva Raya[19][20] – a development which made Mysore a regional political factor to reckon with.[21][22]

Consequently, by 1612–13, the Wodeyars exercised a great deal of autonomy and even though they acknowledged the nominal overlordship of the

Malnad was also dealt with successfully. This period was followed by one of the complex geo-political changes when in the 1670s, the Marathas and the Mughals pressed into the Deccan.[22][23]

Kodagu (modern Coorg); who between them controlled the Kanara coast (coastal areas of modern Karnataka) and the intervening hill region respectively.[27] The conflict brought mixed results with Mysore annexing Periyapatna but suffering a reversal at Palupare.[28]

Nevertheless, from around 1704, when the kingdom passed on to the "Mute king" (Mukarasu)

Krishnaraja II saw the Deccan Sultanates being eclipsed by the Mughals and in the confusion that ensued, Hyder Ali, a captain in the army, rose to prominence.[22] His victory against the Marathas at Bangalore in 1758, resulting in the annexation of their territory, made him an iconic figure. In honour of his achievements, the king gave him the title "Nawab Haider Ali Khan Bahadur".[31]

Under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

Main articles:
Maratha–Mysore War
Admiral Suffren meeting with ally Hyder Ali
in 1783. J. B. Morret engraving, 1789
Sultanate of Mysore at the entrance to the fort of Bangalore
A portrait of Tipu Sultan, made during the Third Anglo-Mysore War
Srirangapatna
Lord Cornwallis hastily retreats after his unsuccessful siege of Srirangapatna (1792).

French vie with the British for control of the Carnatic—a contest in which the British would eventually prevail as British commander Sir Eyre Coote decisively defeated the French under the Comte de Lally at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760, a watershed in Indian history as it cemented British supremacy in South Asia.[34] Though the Wodeyars remained the nominal heads of Mysore during this period, real power lay in the hands of Hyder Ali and his son Tipu.[35]

By 1761, Maratha power had diminished and by 1763, Hyder Ali had captured the Keladi kingdom, defeated the rulers of

Bellary in the north.[36][37] Mysore was now a major political power in the subcontinent and Haider's meteoric rise from relative obscurity and his defiance formed one of the last remaining challenges to complete British hegemony over the Indian subcontinent—a challenge which would take them more than three decades to overcome.[38]

In a bid to stem Hyder's rise, the British allied with the Marathas and the Nizam of

Peshwa Madhavrao I against Hyder, in which Hyder was severely defeated and had to pay 36 lacs of tribute as war expenses along with an annual tribute of 14 lacs every year to the peshwa.[40] In these wars Hyder had expected British support as per the 1769 treaty but the British betrayed him by staying out of the conflict. The British betrayal and Hyder's subsequent defeat reinforced Hyder's deep distrust of the British—a sentiment that would be shared by his son and one that would inform Anglo-Mysore rivalries of the next three decades. In 1777, Haider Ali recovered the previously lost territories of Coorg and parts of what would later become Malabar District from the Marathas.[41]
Haider Ali's army advanced towards the Marathas and fought them at the Battle of Saunshi and came out victorious during the same year.[41]

By 1779, Hyder Ali had captured parts of modern Tamil Nadu and

Pollilur, the worst defeat the British suffered in India until Chillianwala, and Arcot, until the arrival of Sir Eyre Coote, when the fortunes of the British began to change.[43] On 1 June 1781 Coote struck the first heavy blow against Hyder Ali in the decisive Battle of Porto Novo. The battle was won by Coote against odds of five to one and is regarded as one of the greatest feats of the British in India. It was followed up by another hard-fought battle at Pollilur (the scene of an earlier triumph of Hyder Ali over a British force) on 27 August, in which the British won another success, and by the rout of the Mysore troops at Sholinghur a month later. Hyder Ali died on 7 December 1782, even as fighting continued with the British. He was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan who continued hostilities against the British by recapturing Baidanur and Mangalore.[37][44]

By 1783 neither the British nor Mysore were able to obtain a clear overall victory. The French withdrew their support of Mysore following the

Maratha–Mysore War occurred between 1785 and 1787 and consisted of a series of conflicts between the Sultanate of Mysore and the Maratha Empire.[46] Following Tipu Sultan's victory against the Marathas at the siege of Bahadur Benda, a peace agreement was signed between the two kingdoms with mutual gains and losses.[47][48] Similarly, the treaty of Mangalore was signed in 1784 bringing hostilities with the British to a temporary and uneasy halt and restoring the others' lands to the status quo ante bellum.[49][50] The treaty is an important document in the history of India because it was the last occasion when an Indian power dictated terms to the British, who were made to play the role of humble supplicants for peace. A start of fresh hostilities between the British and French in Europe would have been sufficient reason for Tipu to abrogate his treaty and further his ambition of striking at the British.[51] His attempts to lure the Nizam, the Marathas, the French and the Sultan of Turkey failed to bring direct military aid.[51]

General Lord Cornwallis receiving Tipu Sultan's sons as hostages.

Tipu's

defending Srirangapatna in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, heralding the end of the Kingdom's independence.[53] Modern Indian historians consider Tipu Sultan an inveterate enemy of the British, an able administrator and an innovator.[54]

Princely state

"Palace of the Maharajah of Mysore, India," from the Illustrated London News, 1881 (with modern hand coloring)

Following Tipu's fall, a part of the kingdom of Mysore was annexed and divided between the Madras Presidency and the

Nizam. The remaining territory was transformed into a Princely State; the five-year-old scion of the Wodeyar family, Krishnaraja III, was installed on the throne with chief minister (Diwan) Purnaiah, who had earlier served under Tipu, handling the reins as regent and Lt. Col. Barry Close taking charge as the British Resident. The British then took control of Mysore's foreign policy and also exacted an annual tribute and a subsidy for maintaining a standing British army at Mysore.[55][56][57] As Diwan, Purnaiah distinguished himself with his progressive and innovative administration until he retired from service in 1811 (and died shortly thereafter) following the 16th birthday of the boy king.[58][59]

Mysore Palace built between 1897 and 1912

The years that followed witnessed cordial relations between Mysore and the British until things began to sour in the 1820s. Even though the Governor of Madras, Thomas Munro, determined after a personal investigation in 1825 that there was no substance to the allegations of financial impropriety made by A. H. Cole, the incumbent Resident of Mysore, the Nagar revolt (a civil insurrection) which broke out towards the end of the decade changed things considerably. In 1831, close on the heels of the insurrection and citing mal-administration, the British took direct control of the princely state, placing it under a commission rule.[60][61] For the next fifty years, Mysore passed under the rule of successive British Commissioners; Sir Mark Cubbon, renowned for his statesmanship, served from 1834 until 1861 and put into place an efficient and successful administrative system which left Mysore a well-developed state.[62]

Jayachamrajendra Wadiyar with Elizabeth II

In 1876–77, however, towards the end of the period of direct British rule, Mysore was struck by a devastating famine with estimated mortality figures ranging between 700,000 and 1,100,000, or nearly a fifth of the population.[63] Shortly thereafter, Maharaja Chamaraja X, educated in the British system, took over the rule of Mysore in 1881, following the success of a lobby set up by the Wodeyar dynasty that was in favour of rendition. Accordingly, a resident British officer was appointed at the Mysore court and a Diwan to handle the Maharaja's administration.[64] From then onwards, until Indian independence in 1947, Mysore remained a Princely State within the British Indian Empire, with the Wodeyars continuing their rule.[64]

After the demise of Maharaja Chamaraja X,

Rajapramukh of Mysore until 1956 when as a result of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, his position was converted into Governor of Mysore State. From 1963 until 1966, he was the first Governor of Madras State.[71]

Administration

Main article: Administration of the Kingdom of Mysore
Mysore Kings (1399–present)
Feudatory Monarchy
(As vassals of Vijayanagara Empire)
(1399–1553)
Yaduraya Wodeyar 1399–1423
Chamaraja Wodeyar I 1423–1459
Timmaraja Wodeyar I 1459–1478
Chamaraja Wodeyar II 1478–1513
Chamaraja Wodeyar III 1513–1553
Absolute Monarchy (Independent
Wodeyar
Kings) (1553–1761)
Timmaraja Wodeyar II 1553–1572
Chamaraja Wodeyar IV 1572–1576
Chamaraja Wodeyar V 1576–1578
Raja Wodeyar I 1578–1617
Chamaraja Wodeyar VI 1617–1637
Raja Wodeyar II 1637–1638
Narasaraja Wodeyar I 1638–1659
Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar 1659–1673
Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar 1673–1704
Narasaraja Wodeyar II
 1704–1714
Krishnaraja Wodeyar I
 1714–1732
Chamaraja Wodeyar VII 1732–1734
Krishnaraja Wodeyar II
 1734–1761
Puppet Monarchy (Under
Tipu Sultan
) (1761–1799)
Krishnaraja Wodeyar II
 1761–1766
Nanjaraja Wodeyar 1766–1770
Chamaraja Wodeyar VIII 1770–1776
Chamaraja Wodeyar IX 1776–1796
Puppet Monarchy (Under British Rule) (1799–1831)
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III
 1799–1831
Titular Monarchy (Monarchy abolished) (1831–1881)
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III
 1831–1868
Chamarajendra Wadiyar X 1868–1881
Constitutional Monarchy (under
British Crown
) Monarchy restored by Rendition Act 1881 (1881–1947)
Chamarajendra Wadiyar X 1881–1894
Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV 1894–1940
Jayachamaraja Wadiyar
 1940–1947
Constitutional Monarchy (Mysore State, Dominion of India) (1947–1956)
Jayachamaraja Wadiyar (as Rajpramukh
) 		1947–1956
Titular Monarchy (Monarchy abolished) (1956–present)
Jayachamaraja Wadiyar
 1956–1974
Srikantadatta Wadiyar 1974–2013
Yaduveera Chamaraja Wadiyar 2015–present

There are no records relating to the administration of the Mysore territory during the

raiyats) who were exempted from any increases in taxation during his time.[22] The first sign that the kingdom had established itself in the area was the issuing of gold coins (Kanthirayi phanam) resembling those of the erstwhile Vijayanagara Empire during Narasaraja Wodeyar's rule.[72]

The rule of Chikka Devaraja saw several reforms effected. Internal administration was remodelled to suit the kingdom's growing needs and became more efficient. A postal system came into being. Far-reaching financial reforms were also introduced. Several petty taxes were imposed in place of direct taxes, as a result of which the peasants were compelled to pay more by way of land tax.[73] The king is said to have taken a personal interest in the regular collection of revenues the treasury burgeoned to 90,000,000 Pagoda (a unit of currency) – earning him the epithet "Nine crore Narayana" (Navakoti Narayana). In 1700, he sent an embassy to Aurangazeb's court bestowed upon him the title Jug Deo Raja and awarded permission to sit on the ivory throne. Following this, he founded the district offices (Attara Kacheri), the central secretariat comprising eighteen departments, and his administration was modelled on Mughal lines.[74]

During

Patel.[56] The central administration comprised six departments headed by ministers, each aided by an advisory council of up to four members.[76]

When the

Kadur, Kolar, Mysore, Shimoga, and Tumkur.[79]

After the rendition,

hydroelectric project was initiated in 1899 (the first such major attempt in India) and electricity and drinking water (the latter through pipes) was supplied to Bangalore.[81] Seshadri Iyer was followed by P. N. Krishnamurti, who created The Secretariat Manual to maintain records and the Co-operative Department in 1905,[81] V. P. Madhava Rao who focussed on the conservation of forests and T. Ananda Rao, who finalised the Kannambadi Dam project.[82]

University Visvesvaraya College of Engineering in Bangalore, the establishment of the Mysore state railway department and numerous industries in Mysore. In 1955, he was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour.[85][86]

Sir

Kaveri River high-level canal to irrigate 120,000 acres (490 km2) in modern Mandya district.[87]

In 1939

Mandya District
was carved out of Mysore District, bringing the number of districts in the state to nine.

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Kingdom of Mysore
See also: Economic history of India

The vast majority of the people lived in villages and agriculture was their main occupation. The economy of the kingdom was based on agriculture. Grains, pulses, vegetables and flowers were cultivated. Commercial crops included sugarcane and cotton. The agrarian population consisted of landlords (

vokkaliga, zamindar, heggadde) who tilled the land by employing several landless labourers, usually paying them in grain. Minor cultivators were also willing to hire themselves out as labourers if the need arose.[88] It was due to the availability of these landless labourers that kings and landlords were able to execute major projects such as palaces, temples, mosques, anicuts (dams) and tanks.[89] Because land was abundant and the population relatively sparse, no rent was charged on land ownership. Instead, landowners paid tax for cultivation, which amounted to up to one-half of all harvested produce.[89]

Under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

Tipu Sultan is credited with founding state trading depots in various locations of his kingdom. In addition, he founded depots in foreign locations such as

Persian Gulf countries and sericulture was developed in twenty-one centres within the kingdom.[92]

The

multivoltine silk producer in India.[93]

Under British rule

This system changed under the subsidiary alliance with the British, when tax payments were made in cash and were used for the maintenance of the army, police and other civil and public establishments. A portion of the tax was transferred to England as the "Indian tribute".[94] Unhappy with the loss of their traditional revenue system and the problems they faced, peasants rose in rebellion in many parts of south India.[95] After 1800, the Cornwallis land reforms came into effect. Reade, Munro, Graham and Thackeray were some administrators who improved the economic conditions of the masses.[96] However, the homespun textile industry suffered while most of India was under British rule, except the producers of the finest cloth and the coarse cloth which was popular with the rural masses. This was due to the manufacturing mills of Manchester, Liverpool and Scotland being more than a match for the traditional handweaving industry, especially in spinning and weaving.[97][98]

The economic revolution in England and the tariff policies of the British also caused massive de-industrialization in other sectors throughout British India and Mysore. For example, the gunny bag weaving business had been a monopoly of the Goniga people, which they lost when the British began ruling the area. The import of a chemical substitute for saltpetre (potassium nitrate) affected the Uppar community, the traditional makers of saltpetre for use in gunpowder. The import of kerosene affected the Ganiga community which supplied oils. Foreign enamel and crockery industries affected the native pottery business, and mill-made blankets replaced the country-made blankets called kambli.[99] This economic fallout led to the formation of community-based social welfare organisations to help those within the community to cope better with their new economic situation, including youth hostels for students seeking education and shelter.[100] However, the British economic policies created a class structure consisting of a newly established middle class comprising various blue and white-collared occupational groups, including agents, brokers, lawyers, teachers, civil servants and physicians. Due to a more flexible caste hierarchy, the middle class contained a heterogeneous mix of people from different castes.[101]

Culture

Religion

Temple pond constructed by King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar at Shravanabelagola, an important Jain temple town
Shweta Varahaswamy temple (1673–1704) in the Mysore Palace grounds

The early kings of the Wodeyar dynasty worshipped the Hindu god Shiva. The later kings, starting from the 17th century, took to

Suryanath Kamath claims King Chikka Devaraja was a Srivaishnava (follower of Sri Vaishnavism, a sect of Vaishnavism) but was not anti-Veerashaiva.[105] Historian Aiyangar concurs that some of the kings including the celebrated Narasaraja I and Chikka Devaraja were Vaishnavas, but suggests this may not have been the case with all Wodeyar rulers.[106] The rise of the modern-day Mysore city as a centre of south Indian culture has been traced from the period of their sovereignty.[107] Raja Wodeyar I initiated the celebration of the Dasara festival in Mysore, a proud tradition of the erstwhile Vijayanagara royal family.[108][109]

Jain monastic order at the town of Shravanabelagola.[110][111] Records indicate that some Wodeyar kings not only presided over the Mahamastakabhisheka ceremony, an important Jain religious event at Shravanabelagola, but also personally offered prayers (puja) during the years 1659, 1677, 1800, 1825, 1910, 1925, 1940, and 1953.[112]

The contact between South India and

Kodagu regions. They point out that Tipu was responsible for mass conversions of Christians and Hindus in these regions by force to convert.[115][116]

Society

Main article: Society of the Kingdom of Mysore
Mysore University
campus houses the university offices.

Before the 18th century, the society of the kingdom followed age-old and deeply established norms of social interaction between people. Accounts by contemporaneous travellers indicate the widespread practice of the

Mahanavami).[117] Later, fundamental changes occurred due to the struggle between native and foreign powers. Though wars between the Hindu kingdoms and the Sultanates continued, the battles between native rulers (including Muslims) and the newly arrived British took centre stage.[75] The spread of English education, the introduction of the printing press and the criticism of the prevailing social system by Christian missionaries helped make the society more open and flexible. The rise of modern nationalism throughout India also affected Mysore.[118]

With the advent of British power, English education gained prominence in addition to traditional education in local languages. These changes were orchestrated by

Mysore University (1916) in Mysore and the St. Agnes College in Mangalore (1921).[121]

Social reforms aimed at removing practices such as

Pampa Bharata and the Jaimini Bharata), a Kannada-language Bible, a bilingual dictionary and a Kannada newspaper called Kannada Samachara began in the early 19th century.[125] Aluru Venkata Rao published a consolidated Kannada history glorifying the achievements of Kannadigas in his book Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava.[126]

Sanskrit drama,[127] and native Yakshagana musical theatre influenced the Kannada stage and produced famous dramatists like Gubbi Veeranna.[128] The public began to enjoy Carnatic music through its broadcast via public address systems set up on the palace grounds.[129] Mysore paintings, which were inspired by the Bengal Renaissance, were created by artists such as Sundarayya, Ala Singarayya, and B. Venkatappa.[130]

Literature

Main articles:
Kannada literature in the Kingdom of Mysore and Modern Kannada literature
Opening page of the musical treatise Sritattvanidhi proclaiming Krishnaraja Wodeyar III as the author

The era of the Kingdom of Mysore is considered a golden age in the development of Kannada literature. Not only was the Mysore court adorned by famous Brahmin and Veerashaiva writers and composers,[111][131] the kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions.[132][133] While conventional literature in philosophy and religion remained popular, writings in new genres such as chronicle, biography, history, encyclopaedia, novel, drama, and musical treatise became popular.[134] A native form of folk literature with dramatic representation called Yakshagana gained popularity.[135][136] A remarkable development of the later period was the influence of English literature and classical Sanskrit literature on Kannada.[137]

Govinda Vaidya, a native of Srirangapatna, wrote Kanthirava Narasaraja Vijaya, a eulogy of his patron King Narasaraja I. Written in sangatya metre (a composition meant to be rendered to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), the book describes the king's court, popular music and the types of musical compositions of the age in twenty-six chapters.[138][139] King Chikka Devaraja was the earliest composer of the dynasty.[31][140] To him is ascribed the famous treatise on music called Geetha Gopala. Though inspired by Jayadeva's Sanskrit work Geetha Govinda, it had an originality of its own and was written in saptapadi metre.[141] Contemporary poets who left their mark on the entire Kannada-speaking region include the Brahmin poet Lakshmisa and the itinerant Veerashaiva poet Sarvajna. Female poets also played a role in literary developments, with Cheluvambe (the queen of Krishnaraja Wodeyar I), Helavanakatte Giriyamma, Sri Rangamma (1685) and Sanchi Honnamma (Hadibadeya Dharma, late 17th century) writing notable works.[142][143]

A polyglot, King Narasaraja II authored fourteen Yakshaganas in various languages, though all are written in Kannada script.[144] Maharaja Krishnaraja III was a prolific writer in Kannada for which he earned the honorific Abhinava Bhoja (a comparison to the medieval King Bhoja).[145] Over forty writings are attributed to him, of which the musical treatise Sri Tatwanidhi and a poetical romance called Saugandika Parinaya written in two versions, a sangatya and a drama, are most well known.[146] Under the patronage of the Maharaja, Kannada literature began its slow and gradual change towards modernity. Kempu Narayana's Mudramanjusha ("The Seal Casket", 1823) is the earliest work that has touches of modern prose.[147] However, the turning point came with the historically important Adbhuta Ramayana (1895) and Ramaswamedham (1898) by Muddanna, whom the Kannada scholar Narasimha Murthy considers "a Janus like figure" of modern Kannada literature. Muddanna has deftly handled an ancient epic from an entirely modern viewpoint.[148]

Basavappa Shastry, a native of Mysore and a luminary in the court of Maharaja Krishnaraja III and Maharaja Chamaraja X, is known as the "Father of Kannada theatre" (Kannada Nataka Pitamaha).[149] He authored dramas in Kannada and translated William Shakespeare's "Othello" to Shurasena Charite. His well-known translations from Sanskrit to Kannada are many and include Kalidasa and Abhignyana Shakuntala.[150]

Music

Main article: Musicians of the Kingdom of Mysore
Legendary Vainikas – Veene Subbanna and Veene Sheshanna (photographed in 1902)

Under Maharaja Krishnaraja III and his successors – Chamaraja X, Krishnaraja IV and the last ruler, Jayachamaraja, the Mysore court came to be the largest and most renowned patron of music.[151] While the Tanjore and Travancore courts also extended great patronage and emphasised preservation of the art, the unique combination of royal patronage of individual musicians, the founding of music schools to kindle public interest and patronage of European music publishers and producers set Mysore apart.[152] Maharaja Krishnaraja III, himself a musician and musicologist of merit, composed several javalis (light lyrics) and devotional songs in Kannada under the title Anubhava pancharatna. His compositions bear the pen name (mudra) "Chamundi'" or '"Chamundeshwari'", in honour of the Wodeyar family deity.[153]

Under Krishnaraja IV, art received further patronage. A distinct school of music that gave importance to

calliaphone, a mechanical music player.[157]

The Mysore court was home to several renowned experts (

T. Chowdiah emerged as one of the most accomplished exponents of the time. He is known to have mastered the seven-stringed violin.[128][167] Chowdiah was appointed court musician by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV in 1939 and received such titles as "Sangeeta Ratna" and "Sangeeta Kalanidhi". He is credited with compositions in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit under the pen name "Trimakuta".[168]

Architecture

Main article: List of religious buildings and structures of the Kingdom of Mysore

The architectural style of courtly and royal structures in the kingdom underwent profound changes during British rule – a mingling of European traditions with native elements. The Hindu temples in the kingdom were built in typical South Indian

Indo-Saracenic and Moorish styles, which for the first time in India, used cast iron columns and roof frames. The striking feature of the exterior is the granite columns that support cusped arches on the portico, a tall tower whose finial is a gilded dome with an umbrella (chattri) on it, and groups of other domes around it.[171] The interior is richly decorated with marbled walls and a teakwood ceiling on which are sculptures of Hindu deities. The Durbar hall leads to an inner private hall through silver doors. This opulent room has floor panels that are inlaid with semi-precious stones, and a stained glass roof supported centrally by columns and arches. The marriage hall (Kalyana mantapa) in the palace complex is noted for its stained glass octagonal dome with peacock motifs.[172]

The

St. Paul's Cathedral in London. Other important features are the Italian marble staircase, the polished wooden flooring in the banquet and dance halls, and the Belgian cut glass lamps.[173] The Jaganmohan Palace was commissioned in 1861 and was completed in 1910. The three-storeyed building with attractive domes, finials and cupolas was the venue of many a royal celebration. It is now called the Chamarajendra Art Gallery and houses a rich collection of artefacts.[174]

The

Chamundi Hill, was commissioned in 1922 and completed in 1938 by Maharaja Krishnaraja IV.[173] Other royal mansions built by the Mysore rulers were the Chittaranjan Mahal in Mysore and the Bangalore Palace in Bangalore, a structure built on the lines of England's Windsor Castle.[176] The Central Food Technical Research Institute (Cheluvamba Mansion), built in baroque European renaissance style, was once the residence of princess Cheluvambaamani Avaru, a sister of Maharaja Krishnaraja IV. Its extensive pilaster work and mosaic flooring are noteworthy.[177]

Most famous among the many temples built by the Wodeyars is the

yali ("mythical beast") pillared Venkataramana temple built in the late 17th century at Bangalore fort, and the Ranganatha temple in Srirangapatna.[180]

Tipu Sultan built a wooden collonaded palace called the Dariya Daulat Palace (lit, "garden of the wealth of the sea") in Srirangapatna in 1784. Built in the Indo-Saracenic style, the palace is known for its intricate woodwork consisting of ornamental arches, striped columns floral designs, and paintings. The west wall of the palace is covered with murals depicting Tipu Sultan's victory over Colonel Baillie's army at Pollilur, near Kanchipuram in 1780. One mural shows Tipu enjoying the fragrance of a bouquet while the battle is in progress. In that painting, the French soldiers' moustaches distinguish them from the cleanshaven British soldiers.[181][182] Also in Srirangapatna is the Gumbaz mausoleum, built by Tipu Sultan in 1784. It houses the graves of Tipu and Hyder Ali. The granite base is capped with a dome built of brick and pilasters.[183]

Science and Technology in Mysore

Rocket Science & Rocket Artillery

See also: Mysorean rockets
Tip of an early Mysorean rocket/Congreve rocket of the Napoleonic Wars, on display at Paris Naval Museum


The first iron-cased and metal-

British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km (1 mi) range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, which was soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[184]

According to Stephen Oliver Fought and John F. Guilmartin Jr. in Encyclopædia Britannica (2008):

Seringapatam in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British."[185]

The rockets were observed by Lieutenant General

Sir William Congreve in 1808.[187]

A soldier from Tipu Sultan's army, using his rocket as a flagstaff.
Tipu Sultan organised his Rocket artillery brigades known as Cushoons, Tipu Sultan expanded the number of servicemen in the various Cushoons from 1500 to almost 5000. The Mysorean rockets utilised by Tipu Sultan, were later updated by the British and successively employed during the Napoleonic Wars.

Dr

Royal Artillery Museum in London. According to historian Dr Dulari Qureshi Tipu Sultan was a fierce warrior king and was so quick in his movement that it seemed to the enemy that he was fighting on many fronts at the same time.[188]

Tipu Sultan's father had expanded on Mysore's use of rocketry, making critical innovations in the rockets themselves and the military logistics of their use. He deployed as many as 1,200 specialised troops in his army to operate rocket launchers. These men were skilled in operating the weapons and were trained to launch their rockets at an angle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder and the distance to the target. The rockets had twin side sharpened blades mounted on them, and when fired en masse, spun and wreaked significant damage against a large army. Tipu greatly expanded the use of rockets after Hyder's death, deploying as many as 5,000 rocketeers at a time.[189] The rockets deployed by Tipu during the Battle of Pollilur were much more advanced than those the British East India Company had previously seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missiles (up to 2 km range).[189][186]

British accounts describe the use of the rockets during the third and fourth wars.[190] During the climactic battle at Srirangapatna in 1799, British shells struck a magazine containing rockets, causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of exploding white light rising from the battlements. After Tipu's defeat in the Fourth War, the British captured a number of the Mysorean rockets. These became influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, which was soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[186]

Tipu's Tiger

Tipu's Tiger in the V&A Museum, London showing the prostrate European being attacked

Bengaluru) in India. The carved and painted wood casing represents a tiger mauling a near-life-size European man. Mechanisms inside the tiger and the man's body make one hand of the man move, emit a wailing sound from his mouth and grunt from the tiger. In addition, a flap on the side of the tiger folds down to reveal the keyboard of a small pipe organ with 18 notes.[191]

The automaton makes use of his emblem of the tiger and expresses his hatred of his enemy, the British of the

Lord Mornington, sent the tiger to Britain initially intending it to be an exhibit in the Tower of London. First exhibited to the London public in 1808 in East India House, then the offices of the East India Company in London, it was later transferred to the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in 1880 (accession number 2545(IS)).[192] It now forms part of the permanent exhibit on the "Imperial courts of South India".[193]
From the moment it arrived in London to the present day, Tipu's Tiger has been a popular attraction to the public.

Side view, showing how the handle when turned gets in the way of the player of the keyboard

Military & War Artillery

War coat used by Tipu Sultan of Mysore.c. 1785-1790
A flintlock blunderbuss, built for Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatna, 1793–94. Tipu Sultan used many Western craftsmen, and this gun reflects the most up-to-date technologies of the time.[194]
Very small Cannon used by Tipu Sultan's forces now in Government Museum (Egmore), Chennai
Cannon used by Tipu Sultan's forces at the battle of Srirangapatna 1799
Cannon Haidari, a cannon gifted by Tipu Sultan to Fateh Muhammad.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kingdom of Mysore.

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Bibliography

Further reading

  • "India". Life. Time, Inc. 12 May 1941. pp. 94–103.
  • Yazdani, Kaveh. India, Modernity and the Great Divergence: Mysore and Gujarat (17th to 19th C.) (Leiden: Brill), 2017. xxxi + 669 pp. online review Archived 11 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine

12°18′N 76°39′E / 12.30°N 76.65°E / 12.30; 76.65

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