Wallachia

Coordinates: 44°26′N 26°06′E / 44.43°N 26.10°E / 44.43; 26.10
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Principality of Wallachia
)
Not to be confused with Walchia, Wallacea, or Wallacia.
For other uses, see Wallachia (disambiguation).

Principality of Wallachia
Țara Românească (Romanian)
   Цѣра Рꙋмѫнѣскъ
   Țeara Rumânească
Βλαχία (Greek)
1330–1859
Flag of Wallachia
Top: Heraldic flag (c. 1593–1611)
Bottom: Flag 1845
Coat of arms (1700) of Wallachia
Coat of arms (1700)
Motto: Dreptate, Frăție
"Justice, Brotherhood" (1848)
Wallachia in 1812
Wallachia in 1812
Wallachia in the late 18th century
Wallachia in the late 18th century
Status
Capital
Common languages
Religion
Eastern Orthodox
Minority:
  • Prince
 
• c. 1290–c. 1310
Radu Negru (first)
• 1859–1862
Alexandru Ioan Cuza (last)
Historical era
1290[9]
1330
• Ottoman suzerainty for the first time
1417[10]
1593–1621
21 July [O.S. 10 July] 1774
14 September [O.S. 2 September] 1829
1834–1835
5 February [O.S. 24 January] 1859
Currency
Austrian florin and others
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Țara Litua
Banate of Severin
Kingdom of Hungary
Second Bulgarian Empire
United Principalities
Today part ofRomania

Wallachia or Walachia (/wɒˈleɪkiə/;[11] Romanian: Țara Românească, lit. 'The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country', pronounced [ˈt͡sara romɨˈne̯askə]; Old Romanian: Țeara Rumânească, Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: Цѣра Рꙋмѫнѣскъ, Greek: Βλαχία) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Muntenia (Greater Wallachia) and Oltenia (Lesser Wallachia). Dobruja could sometimes be considered a third section due to its proximity and brief rule over it. Wallachia as a whole is sometimes referred to as Muntenia through identification with the larger of the two traditional sections.

Wallachia was founded as a

Olt dates to a charter given to the voivode Seneslau in 1246 by Béla IV of Hungary. In 1417, Wallachia was forced to accept the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire;[10]
this lasted until the 19th century.

In 1859, Wallachia united with

allocated
to the Kingdom of Romania, thereby forming the modern Romanian state.

Etymology

See also: Vlachs

The name Wallachia is an

walhaz used by Germanic peoples and Early Slavs to refer to Romans and other speakers of foreign languages. In Northwestern Europe, this gave rise to Wales, Cornwall, and Wallonia, among others, while in Southeast Europe it was used to designate Romance
-speakers, and subsequently shepherds in general.

In

Metropolitan seat of Hungaro-Wallachia, in contrast to Thessalian or Great Vlachia in Greece or Small Wallachia (Mala Vlaška) in Serbia.[12] The Romanian-language designations of the state were Muntenia (The Land of Mountains), Țara Rumânească (the Romanian Land), Valahia, and, rarely, România.[13] The spelling variant Țara Românească was adopted in official documents by the mid-19th century; however, the version with u remained common in local dialects until much later.[14]

For long periods after the 14th century, Wallachia was referred to as Vlashko (

Ottoman Turkish, the term Eflâk Prensliği, or simply Eflâk افلاق, appears. (Note that in a turn of linguistic luck utterly in favor of the Wallachians' eastward posterity, this toponym, at least according to the phonotactics of modern Turkish, is homophonous with another word, افلاك, meaning "heavens" or "skies".). In old Albanian, the name was "Gogënia", which was used to denote non-Albanian speakers.[17]

Arabic chronicles from the 13th century had used the name of Wallachia instead of Bulgaria. They gave the coordinates of Wallachia and specified that Wallachia was named al-Awalak and the dwellers ulaqut or ulagh.[18]

The area of Oltenia in Wallachia was also known in Turkish as Kara-Eflak ("Black Wallachia") and Kuçuk-Eflak ("Little Wallachia"),[19] while the former has also been used for Moldavia.[20]

History

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Ancient times

Main articles: Getae, Dacians, Dacia, Trajan's Dacian Wars, Domitian's Dacian War, and Roman Dacia

In the

Olt River in 119 before being moved slightly to the east in the second century, during which time it stretched from the Danube up to Rucăr
in the Carpathians. The Roman line fell back to the Olt in 245 and, in 271, the Romans pulled out of the region.

The area was subject to Romanization also during the Migration Period, when most of present-day Romania was also invaded by Goths and Sarmatians known as the Chernyakhov culture, followed by waves of other nomads. In 328, the Romans built a bridge between Sucidava and Oescus (near Gigen) which indicates that there was a significant trade with the peoples north of the Danube. A short period of Roman rule in the area is attested under Emperor Constantine the Great,[21] after he attacked the Goths (who had settled north of the Danube) in 332. The period of Goth rule ended when the Huns arrived in the Pannonian Basin and, under Attila, attacked and destroyed some 170 settlements on both sides of the Danube.

Early Middle Ages

Main articles: Origin of the Romanians and Romania in the Early Middle Ages

Byzantine influence is evident during the fifth to sixth century, such as the site at Ipotești–Cândești culture, but from the second half of the sixth century and in the seventh century, Slavs crossed the territory of Wallachia and settled in it, on their way to Byzantium, occupying the southern bank of the Danube.[22] In 593, the Byzantine commander-in-chief Priscus defeated Slavs, Avars and Gepids on future Wallachian territory, and, in 602, Slavs suffered a crucial defeat in the area; Flavius Mauricius Tiberius, who ordered his army to be deployed north of the Danube, encountered his troops' strong opposition.[23]

A map of the Bulgarian Empire and the Balkans in the ninth century
The Bulgarian lands across the Danube in the ninth century, after the territorial expansion under Krum, Omurtag and Presian

From its establishment in 681 to approximately the Hungarians' conquest of Transylvania at the end of the tenth century, the First Bulgarian Empire controlled the territory of Wallachia. With the decline and subsequent Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria (from the second half of the tenth century up to 1018), Wallachia came under the control of the Pechenegs, Turkic peoples who extended their rule west through the tenth and 11th century, until they were defeated around 1091, when the Cumans of southern Ruthenia took control of the lands of Wallachia.[24] Beginning with the tenth century, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and later Western sources mention the existence of small polities, possibly peopled by, among others, Vlachs led by knyazes and voivodes.

In 1241, during the Mongol invasion of Europe, Cuman domination was ended—a direct Mongol rule over Wallachia was not attested.[25] Part of Wallachia was probably briefly disputed by the Kingdom of Hungary and Bulgarians in the following period,[25] but it appears that the severe weakening of Hungarian authority during the Mongol attacks contributed to the establishment of the new and stronger polities attested in Wallachia for the following decades.[26]

Creation

Main article:
Foundation of Wallachia
The Battle of Posada in the Chronicon Pictum

One of the first written pieces of evidence of local voivodes is in connection with

Hațeg Country in Transylvania), and refused to pay tribute to Ladislaus IV of Hungary. His successor was his brother Bărbat (1285–1288). The continuing weakening of the Hungarian state by further Mongol invasions (1285–1319) and the fall of the Árpád dynasty
opened the way for the unification of Wallachian polities, and to independence from Hungarian rule.

Mircea I of Wallachia
from 1390, depicting the coat of arms of Wallachia

Wallachia's creation, held by local traditions to have been the work of one

Kiliya in the Budjak (reportedly providing the origin of Bessarabia);[27] the supposed rule over the latter was not preserved by the princes that followed, as Kilia was under the rule of the Nogais c.1334.[28]

There is evidence that the

Carpathians indicates a Bulgarian suzerainty over those lands, though Radu's imperative tone hints at a strong and increasing Wallachian autonomy.[29] Under Radu I and his successor Dan I, the realms in Transylvania and Severin continued to be disputed with Hungary.[30] Basarab was succeeded by Nicholas Alexander, followed by Vladislav I. Vladislav attacked Transylvania after Louis I occupied lands south of the Danube, conceded to recognize him as overlord in 1368, but rebelled again in the same year; his rule also witnessed the first confrontation between Wallachia and the Ottoman Empire (a battle in which Vladislav was allied with Ivan Shishman).[31]

The political situation in the Carpathian Basin in the year 1246AD, before the Diploma of the Joannites took effect.
The political situation in the Carpathian Basin in the year 1246 AD, before the Diploma of the Joannites took effect

1400–1600

Main article: Romania in the Middle Ages

Mircea the Elder to Radu the Great

Territories held by Wallachian prince Mircea the Elder, c. 1390[32]

As the entire

Jagiellon Poland (taking part in the Battle of Nicopolis),[34] and accepted a peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1417, after Mehmed I took control of Turnu Măgurele and Giurgiu.[35] The two ports remained part of the Ottoman state, with brief interruptions, until 1829. In 1418–1420, Michael I defeated the Ottomans in Severin, only to be killed in battle by the counter-offensive; in 1422, the danger was averted for a short while when Dan II inflicted a defeat on Murad II with the help of Pippo Spano.[36]

Wallachia as pictured in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle

The peace signed in 1428 inaugurated a period of internal crisis, as Dan had to defend himself against Radu II, who led the first in a series of boyar coalitions against established princes.[37] Victorious in 1431 (the year when the boyar-backed Alexander I Aldea took the throne), boyars were dealt successive blows by Vlad II Dracul (1436–1442; 1443–1447), who nevertheless attempted to compromise between the Ottoman Sultan and the Holy Roman Empire.[38]

Chindia Tower in Târgoviște

The following decade was marked by the conflict between the rival houses of

Radu cel Frumos and Vlad III Dracula
) were taken into Ottoman custody. Recognizing the Christian resistance to their invasion, leaders of the Ottoman Empire released Vlad III to rule in 1448 after his father's assassination in 1447.

Voivode of Wallachia

Known as Vlad III the Impaler or Vlad III Dracula, he immediately put to death the boyars who had conspired against his father, and was characterized as both a national hero and a cruel tyrant.[39] He was cheered for restoring order to a destabilized principality, yet showed no mercy toward thieves, murderers or anyone who plotted against his rule. Vlad demonstrated his intolerance for criminals by utilizing impalement as a form of execution. Vlad fiercely resisted Ottoman rule, having both repelled the Ottomans and been pushed back several times.

Poienari Castle, one of the royal seats of Vlad III Dracul

The Transylvanian Saxons were also furious with him for strengthening the borders of Wallachia, which interfered with their control of trade routes. In retaliation, the Saxons distributed grotesque poems of cruelty and other propaganda, demonizing Vlad III Dracula as a drinker of blood.[40] These tales strongly influenced an eruption of vampiric fiction throughout the West and, in particular, Germany. They also inspired the main character in the 1897 Gothic novel Dracula by Bram Stoker.[41][self-published source?]

In 1462, Vlad III was defeated by Mehmed the Conqueror's during his offensive at the

Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân. This led to the conquest of Wallachia by Radu, who would face his own struggles with the resurgent Vlad III and Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân during his 11-year reign.[43] Subsequently, Radu IV the Great (Radu cel Mare, who ruled 1495–1508) reached several compromises with the boyars, ensuring a period of internal stability that contrasted his clash with Bogdan III the One-Eyed of Moldavia.[44]

Mihnea cel Rău to Petru Cercel

The late 15th century saw the ascension of the powerful

Süleyman the Magnificent; Prince Radu eventually confirmed Süleyman's position as suzerain and agreed to pay an even higher tribute.[47]

Wallachia (highlighted in green) towards the end of the 16th century

Ottoman suzerainty remained virtually unchallenged throughout the following 90 years.

Petru the Younger (1559–1568; a reign dominated by Doamna Chiajna and marked by huge increases in taxes), Mihnea Turcitul, and Petru Cercel.[49]

The Ottoman Empire increasingly relied on Wallachia and Moldavia for the supply and maintenance of its

local army, however, soon disappeared due to the increased costs and the much more obvious efficiency of mercenary troops.[50]

17th century

Main article: Early Modern Romania
Fighting between Michael the Brave and the Ottomans in Giurgiu, 1595

Initially profiting from Ottoman support,

Aron Vodă (see Battle of Călugăreni). He soon placed himself under the suzerainty of Rudolf II, the Holy Roman Emperor, and, in 1599–1600, intervened in Transylvania against Poland's king Sigismund III Vasa, placing the region under his authority; his brief rule also extended to Moldavia later in the following year.[51] For a brief period, Michael the Brave ruled (in a personal, but not formal, union)[52] most of the territories where Romanians lived, rebuilding the base of the ancient Kingdom of Dacia.[53] The rule of Michael the Brave, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states, was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by Nicolae Bălcescu.[citation needed] Following Michael's downfall, Wallachia was occupied by the Polish–Moldavian army of Simion Movilă (see Moldavian Magnate Wars), who held the region until 1602, and was subject to Nogai attacks in the same year.[54]

Counties of Wallachia, 1601–1718

The last stage in the

Antonie Vodă din Popești and George Ducas)[59] before promoting themselves—with the ascension of Șerban Cantacuzino
(1678–1688).

Russo-Turkish Wars and the Phanariotes

Main articles:
Phanariotes
Southeastern Europe (including the Balkan peninsula
) from the 15th to the 18th century

Wallachia became a target for

Russo-Turkish War of 1710–11, and lost his throne and life sometime after sultan Ahmed III caught news of the negotiations.[60] Despite his denunciation of Brâncoveanu's policies, Ștefan Cantacuzino attached himself to Habsburg projects and opened the country to the armies of Prince Eugene of Savoy; he was himself deposed and executed in 1716.[61]

Immediately following the deposition of Prince Ștefan, the Ottomans renounced the purely nominal

privilege gained by the former), a subsequent increase in total taxes,[63] and the enlarged powers of a boyar circle in the Divan.[64]

Welcoming of the Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in Bucharest (1789)

In parallel, Wallachia became the battleground in a succession of wars between the Ottomans on one side and Russia or the Habsburg monarchy on the other. Mavrocordatos himself was deposed by a boyar rebellion, and arrested by Habsburg troops during the

Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39)). Prince Constantine Mavrocordatos, who oversaw the new change in borders, was also responsible for the effective abolition of serfdom in 1746 (which put a stop to the exodus of peasants into Transylvania);[66] during this period, the ban of Oltenia moved his residence from Craiova to Bucharest, signalling, alongside Mavrocordatos' order to merge his personal treasury with that of the country, a move towards centralism.[67]

In 1768, during the

Fifth Russo-Turkish War, Wallachia was placed under its first Russian occupation (helped along by the rebellion of Pârvu Cantacuzino).[68] The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) allowed Russia to intervene in favour of Eastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects, curtailing Ottoman pressures—including the decrease in sums owed as tribute[69]—and, in time, relatively increasing internal stability while opening Wallachia to more Russian interventions.[70]

The Principality of Wallachia, 1793–1812, highlighted in green

Habsburg troops, under

Jean Georges Caradja, although remembered for a major plague epidemic, was notable for its cultural and industrial ventures.[74] During the period, Wallachia increased its strategic importance for most European states interested in supervising Russian expansion; consulates were opened in Bucharest, having an indirect but major impact on Wallachian economy through the protection they extended to Sudiți traders (who soon competed successfully against local guilds).[75]

From Wallachia to Romania

See also: Industrial development in the Principality of Wallachia

Early 19th century

The death of prince

Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire
).

The Legislative Assembly of Wallachia in 1837

On 21 March 1821 Vladimirescu entered Bucharest. For the following weeks, relations between him and his allies worsened, especially after he sought an agreement with the Ottomans;

Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829.[82]

The 1829

privileged), as well as major urban works in Bucharest and other cities.[86] In 1834, Wallachia's throne was occupied by Alexandru II Ghica—a move in contradiction with the Adrianople treaty, as he had not been elected by the new Legislative Assembly; he was removed by the suzerains in 1842 and replaced with an elected prince, Gheorghe Bibescu.[87]

1840s–1850s

Main articles: Wallachian Revolution of 1848 and Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia
1848 revolutionaries carrying an early version of the flag of Romania. The text on the flag can be translated as: "Justice, Brotherhood".

Opposition to Ghica's arbitrary and highly

conspiratorial, and centered on those secret societies created by young officers such as Nicolae Bălcescu and Mitică Filipescu.[89]
Frăția, a clandestine movement created in 1843, began planning a revolution to overthrow Bibescu and repeal Regulamentul Organic in 1848 (inspired by the
national motto.[92] Although sympathetic to the anti-Russian goals of the revolution, the Ottomans were pressured by Russia into repressing it: Ottoman troops entered Bucharest on 13 September.[91] Russian and Turkish troops, present until 1851, brought Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei
to the throne, during which interval most participants in the revolution were sent into exile.

Wallachia (in green), after the Treaty of Paris (1856)

Briefly under renewed Russian occupation during the

Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the Austrian Empire, Prussia, and, albeit never again fully, Russia), with a kaymakam-led internal administration. The emerging movement for a union of the Danubian Principalities (a demand first voiced in 1848, and a cause cemented by the return of revolutionary exiles) was advocated by the French and their Sardinian allies, supported by Russia and Prussia, but was rejected or suspicioned by all other overseers.[93]

Ad hoc Divan
 in 1857

After an intense campaign, a formal union was ultimately granted: nevertheless, elections for the

Partida Națională, won the elections in Moldavia on 5 January; Wallachia, which was expected by the unionists to carry the same vote, returned a majority of anti-unionists to its divan.[94]

Those elected changed their allegiance after a mass protest of Bucharest crowds,

United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (of Romania from 1862) and effectively uniting both principalities. Internationally recognized only for the duration of his reign, the union was irreversible after the ascension of Carol I in 1866 (coinciding with the Austro-Prussian War
, it came at a time when Austria, the main opponent of the decision, was not in a position to intervene).

Society

Slavery

Roman era, where slaves were considered goods instead of human beings and the owners had ius vitae necisque over them (right to end the life of the slave); while robie is the feudal institution where the slaves were legally considered human beings and they had reduced legal capacity.[97]

The exact origins of slavery in Wallachia are not known. Slavery was a common

foundation of Wallachia. The arrival of the Roma made slavery a widespread practice.[98]

Traditionally, Roma slaves were divided into three categories. The smallest was owned by the hospodars, and went by the Romanian-language name of țigani domnești ("Gypsies belonging to the lord"). The two other categories comprised țigani mănăstirești ("Gypsies belonging to the monasteries"), who were the property of Romanian Orthodox and Greek Orthodox monasteries, and țigani boierești ("Gypsies belonging to the boyars"), who were enslaved by the category of landowners.[96][99]

The abolition of slavery was carried out following a campaign by young revolutionaries who embraced the liberal ideas of the Enlightenment. The earliest law which freed a category of slaves was in March 1843, which transferred the control of the state slaves owned by the prison authority to the local authorities, leading to their sedentarizing and becoming peasants. During the Wallachian Revolution of 1848, the agenda of the Provisional Government included the emancipation (dezrobire) of the Roma as one of the main social demands. By the 1850s the movement gained support from almost the whole of Romanian society, and the law from February 1856 emancipated all slaves to the status of taxpayers (citizens).[95][96]

Military forces

Main article: Wallachian military forces

Geography

The present-day counties comprising Wallachia

With an area of approximately 77,000 km2 (30,000 sq mi), Wallachia is situated north of the

Olt River
.

Wallachia's traditional border with

Amlaș, Ciceu, Făgăraș, and Hațeg
), which are generally not considered part of Wallachia proper.

The capital city changed over time, from Câmpulung to Curtea de Argeș, then to Târgoviște and, after the late 17th century, to Bucharest.

Map gallery

  • Wallachia, as shown on a wider map of the Black Sea (mid 16th century)
    Wallachia, as shown on a wider map of the Black Sea (mid 16th century)
  • Wallachia, as part of the Holy League's Orthodox states
    Wallachia, as part of the Holy League's Orthodox states
  • The Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1786, as depicted on an Italian map by G. Pittori (after the geographer Giovanni Antonio Rizzi Zannoni)
    The Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1786, as depicted on an Italian map by G. Pittori (after the geographer Giovanni Antonio Rizzi Zannoni)
  • F.J.J., von Reilly, Das Furstenthum Walachey, Viena, 1789
    F.J.J., von Reilly, Das Furstenthum Walachey, Viena, 1789
  • Salt trade in Wallachia between the 16th and 19th centuries
    Salt trade in Wallachia between the 16th and 19th centuries
  • The region of Wallachia within contemporary Romania
    The region of Wallachia within contemporary Romania

Population

Historical population

See also: Demographic history of Romania

Contemporary historians estimate the population of Wallachia in the 15th century at 500,000 people.[100] In 1859, the population of Wallachia was 2,400,921 (1,586,596 in Muntenia and 814,325 in Oltenia).[101]

Current population

According to the latest

Roma (2.5%), others (0.5%).[102]

Cities

The largest cities (as per the 2011 census) in the Wallachia region are:

See also

Notes

  1. ^ As written chancellery language until it was replaced by Romanian starting with the 16th century. Used for liturgical purposes until the end of the 18th century.
  2. ^ As chancellery and cultural language, especially during the Phanariot period of time.

References

  1. ^ Walachia Archived 19 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine at britannica.com
  2. ^ a b Protectorate Archived 14 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine at britannica.com
  3. ISBN 9781741044782. Archived from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2017 – via Google Books
    .
  4. ISBN 973-95711-2-3
  5. ^ "Tout ce pays: la Wallachie, la Moldavie et la plus part de la Transylvanie, a esté peuplé des colonies romaines du temps de Trajan l'empereur... Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à-dire romain... " in Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier l'an 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, in: Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii și materiale de istorie medievală, IV, 1960, p. 444
  6. ^ Panaitescu, Petre P. (1965). Începuturile şi biruinţa scrisului în limba română (in Romanian). Editura Academiei Bucureşti. p. 5.
  7. ISBN 9780230583474. Archived
    from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
  8. ISBN 9780313274978. Archived
    from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
  9. ^ Brătianu 1980, p. 93.
  10. ^ a b Giurescu, Istoria Românilor, p. 481
  11. ^ "Wallachia". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 6 November 2021.
  12. ^ Dinu C. Giurescu, "Istoria ilustrată a românilor", Editura Sport-Turism, Bucharest, 1981, p. 236
  13. ^ "Ioan-Aurel Pop, Istoria și semnificația numelor de român/valah și România/Valahia, reception speech at the Romanian Academy, delivered on 29 Mai 2013 in public session, Bucharest, 2013, pp. 18–21". Archived from the original on 18 October 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2019. See also I.-A. Pop, "Kleine Geschichte der Ethnonyme Rumäne (Rumänien) und Walache (Walachei)," I-II, Transylvanian Review, vol. XIII, no. 2 (Summer 2014): 68–86 and no. 3 (Autumn 2014): 81–87.
  14. ^ Arvinte, Vasile (1983). Român, românesc, România. București: Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică. p. 52.
  15. ^ A multikulturális Erdély középkori gyökerei – Tiszatáj 55. évfolyam, 11. szám. 2001. november, Kristó Gyula – The medieval roots of the multicultural Transylvania – Tiszatáj 55. year. 11th issue November 2001, Gyula Kristó
  16. ^ "Havasalföld és Moldva megalapítása és megszervezése". Romansagtortenet.hupont.hu. Archived from the original on 30 November 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
  17. ^ Mann, S. (1957). An English-Albanian Dictionary. University Press. p. 129
  18. ^ Dimitri Korobeinikov, A broken mirror: the Kipchak world in the thirteenth century. In the volume: The other Europe from the Middle Ages, Edited by Florin Curta, Brill 2008, p. 394
  19. ISBN 978-1-55876-383-8. Archived
    from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
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  21. ^ Giurescu, p. 37; Ștefănescu, p. 155
  22. ^ Giurescu, p. 38
  23. ^ Warren Treadgold, A Concise History of Byzantium, New York, St Martin's Press, 2001
  24. ^ Giurescu, pp. 39–40
  25. ^ a b Giurescu, p. 39
  26. ^ Ștefănescu, p. 111
  27. ^ Ștefănescu, p. 114
  28. ^ Ștefănescu, p. 119
  29. ^ Павлов, Пламен. "За северната граница на Второто българско царство през XIII-XIV в." (in Bulgarian). LiterNet. Archived from the original on 31 January 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
  30. ^ Ștefănescu, p. 94
  31. ^ Ștefănescu, pp. 93–94
  32. ISBN 973-675-278-X
  33. ^ Ștefănescu, p. 139
  34. ^ Ștefănescu, p. 97
  35. ^ Giurescu, Istoria Românilor, p. 479
  36. ^ Ștefănescu, p. 105
  37. ^ Ștefănescu, pp. 105–106
  38. ^ Ștefănescu, p. 106
  39. ^ Cazacu 2017, pp. 199–202.
  40. ^ Gerhild Scholz Williams; William Layher (eds.). Consuming News: Newspapers and Print Culture in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800). pp. 14–34. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2019.
  41. ISBN 978-1-326-62179-7.[self-published source
    ]
  42. ^ Ștefănescu, pp. 115–118
  43. ^ Ștefănescu, pp. 117–118, 125
  44. ^ Ștefănescu, p. 146
  45. ^ Ștefănescu, pp. 140–141
  46. ^ Ștefănescu, pp. 141–144
  47. ^ a b Ștefănescu, pp. 144–145
  48. ^ Ștefănescu, p. 162
  49. ^ Ștefănescu, pp. 163–164
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  51. ^ Ștefănescu, pp. 169–180
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  55. ^ Giurescu, pp. 68–69, 73–75
  56. ^ Giurescu, pp. 68–69, 78, 268
  57. ^ Giurescu, p. 74
  58. ^ Giurescu, p. 78
  59. ^ Giurescu, pp. 78–79
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  61. ^ Djuvara, pp. 31, 336
  62. ^ Djuvara, pp. 31–32
  63. ^ Djuvara, pp. 67–70
  64. ^ Djuvara, p. 124
  65. ^ Djuvara, pp. 48, 92; Giurescu, pp. 94–96
  66. ^ Djuvara, pp. 48, 68, 91–92, 227–228, 254–256; Giurescu, p. 93
  67. ^ Djuvara, pp. 59, 71; Giurescu, p. 93
  68. ^ Djuvara, p. 285; Giurescu, pp. 98–99
  69. ^ Berza
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  71. ^ Giurescu, pp. 105–106
  72. ^ Djuvara, pp. 17–19, 282; Giurescu, p. 107
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  74. ^ Djuvara, pp. 165, 168–169; Giurescu, p. 252
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  82. ^ Djuvara, p. 321
  83. ^ Giurescu, pp. 122, 127
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  88. ^ Djuvara, p. 329; Giurescu, p. 134
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Bibliography

  • Berza, Mihai. "Haraciul Moldovei și al Țării Românești în sec. XV–XIX", in Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie, II, 1957, pp. 7–47.
  • Brătianu, Gheorghe I (1980). Tradiția istorică despre întemeierea statelor românești (The Historical Tradition of the Foundation of the Romanian States). Editura Eminescu.
  • Cazacu, Matei (2017). Reinert, Stephen W. (ed.). Dracula. East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450. Vol. 46. Translated by Brinton, Alice; Healey, Catherine; Mordarski, Nicole; Reinert, Stephen W.
    ISBN 978-90-04-34921-6
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  • Djuvara, Neagu. Între Orient și Occident. Țările române la începutul epocii moderne, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995.
  • Giurescu, Constantin. Istoria Românilor, Vol. I, 5th edition, Bucharest, 1946.
  • Giurescu, Constantin. Istoria Bucureștilor. Din cele mai vechi timpuri pînă în zilele noastre, ed. Pentru Literatură, Bucharest, 1966.
  • Ștefănescu, Ștefan. Istoria medie a României, Vol. I, Bucharest, 1991.

External links

Media related to Wallachia at Wikimedia Commons

44°26′N 26°06′E / 44.43°N 26.10°E / 44.43; 26.10

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