Progeria
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Progeria | |
---|---|
Other names | Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS), genetic tests[5] |
Differential diagnosis | Hallermann–Streiff syndrome, Gottron's syndrome, Wiedemann–Rautenstrauch syndrome[5] |
Treatment | Mostly symptomatic[5] |
Medication | Lonafarnib[6][7] |
Prognosis | Average age of death is 15 years[citation needed] |
Frequency | Rare: 1 in 18 million[5] |
Progeria is a specific type of progeroid syndrome, also known as Hutchinson–Gilford syndrome or Hutchinson–Gilford progeroid syndrome (HGPS).[8] A single gene mutation is responsible for causing progeria. The gene, known as lamin A (LMNA), makes a protein necessary for holding the nucleus of the cell together. When this gene gets mutated, an abnormal form of lamin A protein called progerin is produced. Progeroid syndromes are a group of diseases that causes individuals to age faster than usual, leading to them appearing older than they actually are. Patients born with progeria typically live to an age of mid-teens to early twenties.[9][10]
Severe cardiovascular complications usually develop by puberty, later on resulting in death.
Signs and symptoms
Most children with progeria appear normal at birth and during early infancy.
Pathophysiology
Hutchinson-Gilford progeroid syndrome (HGPS) is an extremely rare
HPGS is caused by mutations that weaken the structure of the cell nucleus, making normal cell division difficult. The
In normal conditions, the
To date over 1,400 SNPs in the LMNA gene are known.[21] They can manifest as changes in mRNA, splicing, or protein amino acid sequence (e.g. Arg471Cys,[22] Arg482Gln,[23] Arg527Leu,[24] Arg527Cys,[25] Ala529Val[26]).
Progerin may also play a role in normal human aging, since its production is activated in typical senescent cells.[18]
Unlike other "accelerated aging diseases" (such as Werner syndrome, Cockayne syndrome or xeroderma pigmentosum), progeria may not be directly caused by defective DNA repair. These diseases each cause changes in a few specific aspects of aging, but never in every aspect at once, so they are often called "segmental progerias".[27]
A 2003 report in Nature[28] said that progeria may be a de novo dominant trait. It develops during cell division in a newly conceived zygote or in the gametes of one of the parents. It is caused by mutations in the LMNA (lamin A protein) gene on chromosome 1; the mutated form of lamin A is commonly known as progerin. One of the authors, Leslie Gordon, was a physician who did not know anything about progeria until her own son, Sam, was diagnosed at 22 months. Gordon and her husband, pediatrician Scott Berns, founded the Progeria Research Foundation.[29]
A subset of progeria patients with heterozygous mutations of LMNA have presented an atypical form of the condition, with initial symptoms not developing until late childhood or early adolescence. These patients have had longer lifespans than those with typical-onset progeria.[11] This atypical form is extremely rare, with presentations of the condition varying between patients with even the same mutation.[30] The general phenotype of atypical cases is consistent with typical progeria, but other factors (severity, onset, and lifespan) vary in presentation.[31]
Lamin A
Prelamin A contains a CAAX box at the
In HGPS, the recognition site that the enzyme requires for cleavage of prelamin A to lamin A is mutated. Lamin A cannot be produced, and prelamin A builds up on the nuclear membrane, causing a characteristic nuclear
A study that compared HGPS patient cells with the skin cells from young and elderly normal human subjects found similar defects in the HGPS and elderly cells, including
Mitochondria
The presence of progerin also leads to the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria within the cell. These mitochondria are characterized by a swollen morphology, caused by a condensation of mtDNA and TFAM into the mitochondria, which is driven by a severe mitochondrial dysfunction (low mitochondrial membrane potential, low ATP production, low respiration capacity and high ROS production).[36][37][38] Therefore, contributing substantially to the senescence phenotype. Although, the explanation for this defective-mitochondria accumulation in progeria is about to be elucidated, it has been proposed that low PGC1-α expression[36][37][39] (important for mitochondrial biogenesis, maintenance and function) along with low LAMP2 protein level and lysosome number (both important for mitophagy: the degradation of defective mitochondria pathway),[36] could be implicated.
Diagnosis
Skin changes, abnormal growth, and loss of hair occur. These symptoms normally start appearing by one year of age. A genetic test for LMNA mutations can confirm the diagnosis of progeria.[40][41] Prior to the advent of the genetic test, misdiagnosis was common.[41]
Differential diagnosis
Other syndromes with similar symptoms (non-laminopathy progeroid syndromes) include:[42]
- Acrogeria
- Berardinelli-Seip congenital lipodystrophy (congenital generalized lipodystrophy)
- Cockayne syndrome
- Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, progeroid form
- Gerodermia osteodysplastica
- Hallermann-Streiff syndrome
- Mandibuloacral dysplasia
- Neonatal progeroid syndrome (Wiedemann-Rautenstrauch syndrome)
- Nestor-Guillermo syndrome
- Penttinen syndrome
- Petty-Laxova-Weidemann progeroid syndrome
- POLR3A-related Wiedemann-Rautenstrauch syndrome
- PYCR1-related Wiedemann-Rautenstrauch-like syndrome
- Werner syndrome
Treatment
In November 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved lonafarnib, which helps prevent buildup of defective progerin and similar proteins.[43] A clinical trial in 2018 points to significantly lower mortality rates – treatment with lonafarnib alone compared with no treatment (3.7% vs. 33.3%) – at a median post-trial follow-up time span of 2.2 years.[44] The drug, given orphan drug status and Pediatric Disease Priority Review Voucher, is taken twice daily in the form of capsules and may cost US$650,000 per year, making it prohibitive for the vast majority of families. It is unclear how it will be covered by health insurance in the United States. Common side effects of the drug include "nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, infections, decreased appetite, and fatigue".[13]
Other treatment options have focused on reducing complications (such as cardiovascular disease) with coronary artery bypass surgery and low-dose acetylsalicylic acid.[45]
A type of anticancer drug, the
Farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTIs) are drugs that inhibit the activity of an enzyme needed to make a link between progerin proteins and farnesyl groups. This link generates the permanent attachment of the progerin to the nuclear rim. In progeria, cellular damage can occur because that attachment occurs, and the nucleus is not in a normal state. Lonafarnib is an FTI, which means it can avoid this link, so progerin can not remain attached to the nucleus rim, and it now has a more normal state.[citation needed]
Studies of sirolimus, an mTOR Inhibitor, demonstrate that it can minimize the phenotypic effects of progeria fibroblasts. Other observed consequences of its use are abolishing nuclear blebbing, degradation of progerin in affected cells, and reducing insoluble progerin aggregates formation. These results have been observed only in vitro and are not the results of any clinical trial, although it is believed that the treatment might benefit HGPS patients.[17]
Recently, it has been demonstrated that the CRM1 protein (a key component of the nuclear export machinery in mammalian) is upregulated in HGPS cells, which drives to the abnormal localization of NES containing proteins from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.[51] Moreover, the inhibition of CRM1 in HGPS alleviates the associated-senescence phenotype[51] as well as the mitochondrial function (an important determinant in senescence) and lysosome content.[36] These results are under in vivo validation with selinexor (a more suitable CRM1 inhibitor for human use[52]).
Prognosis
As there is no known cure, few people with progeria exceed 16 years of age.[53] At least 90 percent of patients die from complications of atherosclerosis, such as heart attack or stroke.[54]
Mental development is not adversely affected; in fact, intelligence tends to be average to above average.
Although there may not be any successful treatments for progeria itself, there are treatments for the problems it causes, such as arthritic, respiratory, and cardiovascular problems. People with progeria have normal reproductive development, and there are known cases of women with progeria who delivered healthy offspring.[56]
Epidemiology
A study from the Netherlands has shown an incidence of 1 in 20 million births.[57] According to the Progeria Research Foundation, as of September 2020, there are 179 known cases in the world, in 53 countries; 18 of the cases were identified in the United States.[58][13] Hundreds of cases have been reported in medical history since 1886.[59][60][61] However, the Progeria Research Foundation believes there may be as many as 150 undiagnosed cases worldwide.[62]
There have been only two cases in which a healthy person was known to carry the LMNA mutation that causes progeria.[63] One family from India had four of six children with progeria.[64]
Research
Mouse model
A mouse
In 2020
DNA repair
Repair of DNA double-strand breaks can occur by either of two processes, non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or homologous recombination (HR). A-type lamins promote genetic stability by maintaining levels of proteins that have key roles in NHEJ and HR.[69] Mouse cells deficient for maturation of prelamin A show increased DNA damage and chromosome aberrations and have increased sensitivity to DNA damaging agents.[19] In progeria, the inability to adequately repair DNA damages due to defective A-type lamin may cause aspects of premature aging[70] (also see DNA damage theory of aging).
Epigenetic clock analysis of human HGPS
Fibroblast samples from children with progeria syndrome exhibit accelerated epigenetic aging effects according to the epigenetic clock for skin and blood samples.[71]
History
Progeria was first described in 1886 by Jonathan Hutchinson.[72] It was also described independently in 1897 by Hastings Gilford.[73] The condition was later named Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome. Scientists are interested in progeria partly because it might reveal clues about the normal process of aging.[74][63][75]
Etymology
The word progeria comes from the Greek words pro (πρό) 'before, premature', and gēras (γῆρας), 'old age'.[76]
Society and culture
Notable cases
Yan Hui, a student of Confucius, aged rapidly and died at a young age, appearing as an old man by his late 20s. He may be one of the earliest potential examples of progeria in history.[77][failed verification]
In 1987, fifteen-year-old Mickey Hays, who had progeria, appeared along with Jack Elam in the documentary I Am Not a Freak.[78] Elam and Hays first met during the filming of the 1986 film The Aurora Encounter,[79] in which Hays was cast as an alien. The friendship that developed lasted until Hays died in 1992, on his 20th birthday. Elam said, "You know I've met a lot of people, but I've never met anybody that got next to me like Mickey."[This quote needs a citation]
Harold Kushner, who among other things wrote the book When Bad Things Happen to Good People, had a son, Aaron, who died at the age of 14 in 1977 of progeria.[80]
Margaret Casey, a 29-year-old woman with progeria who was then believed to be the oldest survivor of the premature aging disease, died on Sunday, May 26, 1985. Casey, a freelance artist, was admitted to
Sam Berns was an American activist with the disease. He was the subject of the HBO documentary Life According to Sam. Berns also gave a TEDx talk titled "My Philosophy for a Happy Life" on December 13, 2013.[82]
Hayley Okines was an English progeria patient who spread awareness of the condition.[83]
Leon Botha, the South African painter and DJ who was known, among other things, for his work with the hip-hop duo Die Antwoord, lived with progeria.[84] He died in 2011, aged 26.
Tiffany Wedekind of Columbus, Ohio, is believed to be the oldest survivor of progeria at 44 years old as of September 2022.[85]
Alexandra Peraut is a Catalan girl with progeria; she has inspired the book Una nena entre vint milions ('A girl in 20 million'), a children's book to explain progeria to youngsters.[86][87]
Adalia Rose Williams, born December 10, 2006, was an American girl with progeria, who was a notable YouTuber and vlogger who shared her everyday life on social media. She died on January 12, 2022, at the age of 15.[88]
Amy Foose, born September 12, 1969, was an American girl with progeria, who died at the age of 16 on December 19, 1985. [89] Sister of American automobile designer, artist, and TV star, Chip Foose, who started a foundation in her name called Amy's Depot. [90] The Progeria Research Foundation gives out The Amy Award every few years, in honor of Amy. [91]
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