Muhammad in Islam

This is a good article. Click here for more information.
Page semi-protected
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Prophet Muhammad
)
This article is about the role and significance of Muhammad in the religion of Islam. For a general overview, see Muhammad.

Imam al-Anbiya'
Rasul Allah
Muhammad
مُحَمَّد
"Muhammad, the Messenger of God"
inscribed on the gates of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina
Prophet of Islam
Preceded byIsa (Jesus)
Succeeded byNone
Title
Epithet
(Laqab)
Khātam al-Nabiyyīn ('Seal of the Prophets')
خَاتَم ٱلنَّبِيِّين
Muslim leader
SuccessorSee Succession to Muhammad
Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim
Part of a series on Islam
Islamic prophets
Prophets in the Quran
Listed by Islamic name and Biblical name.
Main events
Views
 Islam portal
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Practices
History
Culture and society
Related topics

Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib (

Arabic: مُحَمَّد بْن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه بْن عَبْد ٱلْمُطَّلِب; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE) is believed to be the Seal of the Prophets in all of the main branches of Islam. Muslims believe that the Quran, the central religious text of Islam, was revealed to Muhammad by God, and that Muhammad was sent to restore Islam, which they believe did not originate with Muhammad but is the true unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.[1][2][3][4] The religious, social, and political tenets that Muhammad established with the Quran became the foundation of Islam and the Muslim world.[5]

Born about the year 53 BH (570 CE) into a respected

Hira, which was the beginning of the descent of the Quran that continued up to the end of his life; and Muslims hold that Muhammad was asked by God to preach the oneness of God in order to stamp out idolatry, a practice overtly present in pre-Islamic Arabia.[8][9] Because of persecution of the newly converted Muslims, upon the invitation of a delegation from Medina (then known as Yathrib), Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in 1 AH (622 CE), an event known as the Hijrah.[10][11] A turning point in Muhammad's life, this Hijrah also marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad sketched out the Constitution of Medina specifying the rights of and relations among the various existing communities there, formed an independent community, and managed to establish the first Islamic state.[12] Despite the ongoing hostility of the Meccans, Muhammad, along with his followers, took control of Mecca in 630,[13][14] and ordered the destruction of all pagan idols.[15][16] In his later years in Medina, Muhammad unified the different tribes of Arabia under Islam[17] and carried out social and religious reforms.[18] By the time he died in about 11 AH (632 CE), almost all the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.[19]

Muslims often refer to Muhammad as Prophet Muhammad, or just "The Prophet" or "The Messenger", and regard him as the greatest of all Prophets.

Peace be upon him),[24]
sometimes abbreviated as "SAW" or "PBUH".

In the Quran

Further information: Muhammad in the Quran

The Quran reveals little about Muhammad's early life or other biographic details, but it talks about his prophetic mission, his moral excellence, and theological issues regarding Muhammad. According to the Quran, Muhammad is the last in a chain of prophets sent by God (33:40). Throughout the Quran, Muhammad is referred to as "Messenger", "Messenger of God", and "Prophet". Some of such verses are 2:101, 2:143, 2:151, 3:32, 3:81, 3:144, 3:164, 4:79-80, 5:15, 5:41, 7:157, 8:01, 9:3, 33:40, 48:29, and 66:09. Other terms are used, including "Warner", "bearer of glad tidings", and the "one who invites people to a Single God" (Q 12:108, and 33:45-46). The Quran asserts that Muhammad was a man who possessed the highest moral excellence, and that God made him a good example or a "goodly model" for Muslims to follow (Q 68:4, and 33:21). The Quran disclaims any superhuman characteristics for Muhammad,[25] but describes him in terms of positive human qualities. In several verses, the Quran crystallizes Muhammad's relation to humanity. According to the Quran, God sent Muhammad with truth (God's message to humanity), and as a blessing to the whole world (Q 39:33, and 21:107). In Islamic tradition, this means that God sent Muhammad with his message to humanity the following of which will give people salvation in the afterlife, and it is Muhammad's teachings and the purity of his personal life alone which keep alive the worship of God on this world.[26]

According to the Quran, the coming of Muhammad was predicted by Jesus: "And remember, Jesus, the son of Mary, said: ‘O children of Israel! I am God's messenger to you, confirming the law (which came) before me, and giving glad tidings of a messenger to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad'" (Quran 61:6). Through this verse, early Arab Muslims claimed legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions and the alleged predictions of Jesus.[27]

Traditional Muslim account

Bayt al-Mawlid, the birthplace of Muhammad. After his migration the house was taken and sold by Aqil ibn Abi Talib. The house was demolished and converted into the Makkah Al Mukarramah Library
in 1951.

Early years

See also: Muhammad in Mecca, Mawlid, and Family tree of Muhammad

Muhammad, the son of

Arabic: مُحَمَّد‎).[29]

Orphanhood

Muhammad was orphaned when young. Some months before the birth of Muhammad, his father died near Medina on a mercantile expedition to

Abu Talib. In Islamic tradition, Muhammad's being orphaned at an early age has been seen as a part of divine plan to enable him to "develop early the qualities of self-reliance, reflection, and steadfastness".[33] Muslim scholar Muhammad Ali sees the tale of Muhammad as a spiritual parallel to the life of Moses, considering many aspects of their lives to be shared.[34] The Quran said about Moses: "I cast (the garment of love) over thee from Me, so that thou might be reared under My eye. ... We saved thee from all grief, although We tried thee with various trials. ... O Moses, I have chosen thee for Mine Own service" (20:39-41). Taking into account the idea of this spiritual parallelism, together with other aspects of Muhammad's early life, it has been suggested that it was God under Whose direct care Muhammad was raised and prepared for the responsibility that was to be conferred upon him.[33] Islamic scholar Tariq Ramadan argued that Muhammad's orphan state made him dependent on God and close to the destitute – an "initiatory state for the future Messenger of God".[35]

Early life

Lineage of several prophets
according to Islamic tradition
 
Adam
Shīth (Seth)
Nūḥ (Noah)
Ibrāhīm (Abraham)
Ismāʿīl (Ishmael)Iṣḥāq (Isaac)
Mūsa (Moses)
ʿĪsā (Jesus)
Muhammad
Dotted lines indicate multiple generations.

According to Arab custom, after his birth, infant Muhammad was sent to

Halima. Islamic tradition holds that during this period, God sent two angels who opened his chest, took out the heart, and removed a blood-clot from it. It was then washed with Zamzam water. In Islamic tradition, this incident means that God purified his prophet and protected him from sin.[37][38]

Islamic belief holds that God protected Muhammad from getting involved in any disrespectful and coarse practice. Even when he verged on any such activity, God intervened. Prophetic tradition narrates one such incident in which it is said on the authority of Ibn Al-Atheer that while working as herdsman at early period of his life, young Muhammad once told his fellow-shepherd to take care of his sheep so that the former could go to the town for some recreation as the other youths used to do. But on the way, his attention was diverted to a wedding party, and he sat down to listen to the sound of music only to soon fall asleep. He was awakened by the heat of the sun. Muhammad reported that he never tried such things again.[39][40][41]

Around the age of twelve, Muhammad accompanied his uncle

Abu Talib in a mercantile journey to Syria, and gained experience in commercial enterprise.[42] On this journey Muhammad is said to have been recognized by a Christian monk, Bahira, who prophesied about Muhammad's future as a prophet of God.[9][43]

Around the age of twenty five, Muhammad was employed as the caretaker of the mercantile activities of

Qurayshi
lady.

She sent a marriage proposal to Muhammad through her maid-servant Meisara. Muhammad agreed and they were married in the presence of his uncle.[citation needed]

Social welfare

Between 580 CE and 590 CE, Mecca experienced a bloody feud between Quraysh and Bani Hawazin that lasted for four years, before a truce was reached. After the truce, an alliance named Hilf al-Fudul (The Pact of the Virtuous)[44] was formed to check further violence and injustice; and to stand on the side of the oppressed, an oath was taken by the descendants of Hashim and the kindred families, where Muhammad was also a member.[42] In later days of his life, Muhammad is reported to have said about this pact, "I witnessed a confederacy in the house of 'Abdullah bin Jada'an. It was more appealing to me than herds of cattle. Even now in the period of Islam I would respond positively to attending such a meeting if I were invited."[45]

Islamic tradition credits Muhammad with settling a dispute peacefully, regarding setting the sacred Black Stone on the wall of Kaaba, where the clan leaders could not decide on which clan should have the honor of doing that. The Black stone was removed to facilitate the rebuilding of Kaaba because of its dilapidated condition. The disagreement grew tense, and bloodshed became likely. The clan leaders agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate of Kaaba and ask him to choose. The 35-year-old Muhammad entered through that gate first, asked for a mantle which he spread on the ground, and placed the stone at its center. Muhammad had the clans' leaders lift a corner of it until the mantle reached the appropriate height, and then himself placed the stone on the proper place. Thus, an ensuing bloodshed was averted by the wisdom of Muhammad.[9][46][47]

Prophethood

Part of a series on
Muhammad
Life
Career
Miracles
  • Isra and Mi'raj
Views
Perspectives
Succession
Praise
Related
  • Al-Masjid an-Nabawi
Main article: Muhammad's first revelation

Muslims believe that Muhammad is the last and final messenger and prophet of God who began receiving direct verbal revelations in 610 CE. The first revealed verses were the first five

Mount Hira.[48][49]

After his marriage with Khadijah and during his career as a merchant, although engaged in commercial activities and family affairs, Muhammad gradually became preoccupied with contemplation and reflection.[9][50] and began to withdraw periodically to a cave named Mount Hira, three miles north of Mecca.[51] According to Islamic tradition, in the year 610 CE, during one such occasion while he was in contemplation, Jibril appeared before him and said 'Recite', upon which Muhammad replied: 'I am unable to recite'. Thereupon the angel caught hold of him and embraced him heavily. This happened two more times after which the angel commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses:[48][49]

Read, ˹O Prophet,˺ in the Name of your Lord Who created—
created humans from a clinging clot.
Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous,
Who taught by the pen—
taught humanity what they knew not.

— Surah Al-Alaq 96:1-5

This was the first verbal revelation. Perplexed by this new experience, Muhammad made his way to home where he was consoled by his wife Khadijah, who also took him to her Christian cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Waraqah was familiar with scriptures of the Torah and Gospel. Islamic tradition holds that Waraka, upon hearing the description, testified to Muhammad's prophethood.[9][52] It is also reported by Aisha that Waraqah ibn Nawfal later told Muhammad that Muhammad's own people would turn him out, to which Muhammad inquired "Will they really drive me out?" Waraka replied in the affirmative and said "Anyone who came with something similar to what you have brought was treated with hostility; and if I should be alive till that day, then I would support you strongly."[53][54] Some Islamic scholars argue that Muhammad was foretold in the Bible.[55][56][57]

Divine revelation

Main article:
Wahy

In Islamic belief, revelations are God's word delivered by his chosen individuals – known as Messengers—to humanity.

Muhammad Shafi Usmani, God created three media through which humans receive knowledge: men's senses, the faculty of reason, and divine revelation; and it is the third one that addresses the liturgical and eschatological issues, answers the questions regarding God's purpose behind creating humanity, and acts as a guidance for humanity in choosing the correct way.[59] In Islamic belief, the sequence of divine revelation came to an end with Muhammad.[59] Muslims believe these revelations to be the verbatim word of God, which were later collected together, and came to be known as Quran, the central religious text of Islam.[60][61][62][63]

Early preaching and teachings

During the first three years of his ministry, Muhammad preached Islam privately, mainly among his near relatives and close acquaintances. The first to believe him was his wife

Abdullah ibn Masud, Arqam, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Ammar ibn Yasir and Bilal ibn Rabah. In the fourth year of his prophethood, according to Islamic belief, he was ordered by God to make public his propagation of this monotheistic faith (Q 15:94
).

Muhammad's earliest teachings were marked by his insistence on the oneness of God (Q 112:1), the denunciation of polytheism (Q 6:19), belief in the

Last judgment and its recompense (Q 84:1-15), and social and economic justice (Q 89:17-20).[5] In a broader sense, Muhammad preached that he had been sent as God's messenger;[64] that God is One who is all-powerful, creator and controller of this universe (Q 85:8-9, Quran 6:2), and merciful towards his creations (Q 85:14);[65] that worship should be made only to God;[64] that ascribing partnership to God is a major sin (Q 4:48); that men would be accountable, for their deeds, to God on last judgment day, and would be assigned to heaven or hell (Q 85:10-13); and that God expects man to be generous with their wealth and not miserly (Q 107:1-7).[65]

Opposition and persecution

Main articles:
Persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and Migration to Abyssinia

Muhammad's early teachings invited vehement opposition from the wealthy and leading clans of

Aṣḥama ibn Abjar, famous for his justice and intelligence.[69] Accordingly, eleven men and four women made their flight, and were followed by more in later time.[69][70]

Back in

Quraysh then proposed to adopt a common form of worship, which was denounced by the Quran 109:1-6
: Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ “O you disbelievers! I do not worship what you worship, nor do you worship what I worship. I will never worship what you worship, nor will you ever worship what I worship. You have your way, and I have my Way.”

Social boycott

Thus frustrated from all sides, the leaders of various

Khadijah.[9][77] This has largely been attributed to the plight to which the Hashemites were exposed during the boycott.[78][79]

Last years in Mecca

The death of his uncle

Mus‘ab ibn 'Umair to teach them the instructions of Islam. Biographers have recorded the success of Mus'ab ibn 'Umair in preaching the message of Islam and bringing people under the umbrella of Islam in Medina.[86][87]

The next year, at the pilgrimage of June 622, a delegation of around 75 converted

Muslims of Mecca migrated there.[90]

Emigration to Medina

Main article: Hijrah
Inside view of Quba Mosque

Because of assassination attempts from the Quraysh, and prospect of success in Yathrib, a city 320 km (200 mi) north of Mecca, Muhammad emigrated there in 622 CE.

Arabic: مَدينة النّبي‎, literally "City of the Prophet"), but an-Nabi was soon dropped, so its name is "Medina", meaning "the city".[95]

In Medina

Main article: Muhammad in Medina
The place where the people of Medina welcomed Muhammad when he came from Mecca

In Medina, Muhammad's first focus was on the construction of a mosque, which, when completed, was of an austere nature.

Bilal ibn Ribah was appointed to call people in a loud voice at each prayer time, a system later replaced by Adhan
believed to be informed to Abdullah ibn Zayd in his dream, and liked and introduced by Muhammad.

The Emigrants of Mecca, known as

Khazraj.[98]

Establishment of a new polity

See also: Constitution of Medina

After the arrival of Muhammad in Medina, its people could be divided into four groups:[99][100]

  1. The Muslims: emigrants from Mecca and Ansars of Medina.
  2. The hypocrites; they nominally embraced Islam, but actually were against it.
  3. Those from
    Khazraj
    who were still pagans, but were inclined to embrace Islam.
  4. The Jews; they were huge in number and formed an important community there.

In order to establish peaceful coexistence among this heterogeneous population, Muhammad invited the leading personalities of all the communities to reach a formal agreement which would provide a harmony among the communities and security to the city of Medina, and finally drew up the Constitution of Medina, also known as the Medina Charter, which formed "a kind of alliance or federation" among the prevailing communities.[91] It specified the mutual rights and obligations of the Muslims and Jews of Medina, and prohibited any alliance with the outside enemies. It also declared that any dispute would be referred to Muhammad for settlement.[101]

Persistent hostility of Quraysh

Before the arrival of Muhammad, the clans of Medina had suffered a lot from internal feuds and had planned to nominate

Abu Jahl, an archenemy of Islam. At the sight of Sa'ad, Abu Jahl became angry and threatened to stop their visit to Kaaba as his clan had sheltered the Muhammad. Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh also threatened to hinder their trading caravans.[9][103]

Thus, there remained a persistent enmity between the Muslims and the Quraysh tribe.[104] The Muslims were still few and without substantial resources, and fearful of attacks.[9][105]

Causes of and preparation for fighting

Following the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca.[106] The Quraysh leaders of Mecca persecuted the newly converted Muslims there, and they migrated to Medina to avoid persecution, abandoning their properties. Muhammad and the Muslims found themselves in a more precarious situation in Medina than in Mecca.[9][107] Besides the ultimatum of the Quraysh they had to confront the designs of the hypocrites, and had to be wary of the pagans and Jews also.[108] The trading caravans of Quraysh, whose usual route was from Mecca to Syria, used to set the neighboring tribes of Medina against the Muslims, which posed a great danger to the security of Muslims of Medina[109] given that war was common at that time. In view of all this, the Quran granted permission to the persecuted Muslims to defend themselves: "Permission to fight is granted to those against whom war is made, because they have been wronged, and God indeed has the power to help them. They are those who have been driven out of their homes unjustly only because they affirmed: "Our Lord is God"" (Q 22:39-40). The Quran further justifies taking defensive measures by stating that "And if God had not repelled some men by others, the earth would have been corrupted. But God is a Lord of Kindness to (His) creatures" (Q 2:251). According to Quranic description, war is an abnormal and unenviable way which, when inevitable, should be limited to minimal casualty, and free from any kind of transgression on the part of the believers.[110] In this regard, the Quran says, "Fight in the cause of God with those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for God loveth not transgressors" (2:190), and "And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in God; but if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression" (2:193).

Thus, to ensure the security of the Ansars and Muhajirun of Medina, Muhammad resorted to the following measures:

  1. Visiting the neighboring tribes to enter into non-aggression treaty with them to secure Medina from their attacks.[111][112]
  2. Blocking or intercepting the trading caravans of the Quraysh to compel them into a compromise with the Muslims. As these trading enterprises were the main strength of the Quraysh, Muhammad employed this strategy to reduce their strength.[9]
  3. Sending small scouting parties to gather intelligence about Quraysh movement, and also to facilitate the evacuation of those Muslims who were still suffering in Mecca and could not migrate to Medina because of their poverty or any other reason.[109] It is in this connection that the following verse of the Quran was revealed: "And why should you not fight in the cause of God and for those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)? Men, women, and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from Thee one who will protect; and raise for us from Thee one who will help!"" (Q 4:75).

Battle of Badr

Main article: Battle of Badr
A map of the Badr campaign

A key battle in the early days of Islam, the

Muslim march, changed his route towards south-west along Red Sea, and send out a messenger, named Damdam ibn Umar, to Mecca asking for immediate help. The messenger exaggerated the news in a frenzy style of old Arab custom, and misinterpreted the call for protecting the caravan as a call for war.[116][117]

The Quraysh with all its leading personalities except

Islamic prophet Muhammad, he held a council of war where the followers advised him to go forward. The battle occurred on 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan, 2 AH) and resulted in a heavy loss on the Quraysh side: around seventy men, including chief leaders, were killed and a similar number were taken prisoner. Islamic tradition attributes the Muslim victory to the direct intervention of God: he sent down angels that emboldened the Muslims and wreaked damage on the enemy force.[120]

Treason, attacks, and siege

Main articles: Battle of Uhud, Expedition of Al Raji, and Battle of the Trench

The defeat at the battle of Badr provoked the Quraysh to take revenge on Muslims. Meanwhile, two Qurayshi men – Umayr ibn Wahb and Safwan ibn Umayya – conspired to kill Muhammad. The former went to Medina with a poisoned sword to execute the plan but was detected and brought to Muhammad. It is said that Muhammad himself revealed to Umayr his secret plan and Umayr, upon accepting Islam, began preaching Islam in Mecca.[121][122] The Quraysh soon led an army of 3,000 men and fought the Muslim force, consisting of 700 men, in the Battle of Uhud. Despite initial success in the battle, the Muslims failed to consummate victory due to the mistake of the strategically posted archers. The predicament of Muslims at this battle has been seen by Islamic scholars as a result of disobedience of the command of Muhammad: Muslims realized that they could not succeed unless guided by him.[123]

The Battle of Uhud was followed by a series of aggressive and treacherous activities against the Muslims in Medina. Tulaiha ibn Khuweiled, chief of Banu Asad, and Sufyan ibn Khalid, chief of

was put to a massacre by Amir ibn Tufail's Banu Amir and other tribes. Only two of them escaped, returned to Medina, and informed Muhammad of the incidents.[9][125]
Around 5th AH (627 CE), a large combined force of at least 10,000 men from Quraysh,
Sa'ad ibn Mua'dh would take about them, Sa'ad pronounced that the male members be executed and the women and children be considered as war captives.[128][129][130][131]

Treaty with the Quraysh

Main article:
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

Around 6 AH (628 CE) the nascent Islamic state was somewhat consolidated when Muhammad left Medina to perform

Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.[132] Though the terms of the Hudaybiyyah treaty were apparently unfavorable to the Muslims of Medina, the Quran declared it as a clear victory (48:1). Muslim historians mention that through the treaty, the Quraysh recognized Muhammad as their equal counterpart and Islam as a rising power,[133] and that the treaty mobilized the contact between the Meccan pagans and the Muslims of Medina resulting in a large number of Quraysh conversion into Islam after being attracted by the Islamic norms.[9]

Victory

Topkapi Palace Museum
, Istanbul

Around the end of the 6 AH and the beginning of the 7 AH (628 CE),

Munzir ibn Sawa, the ruler of Bahrain. In the 6 AH, Khalid ibn al-Walid accepted Islam who later was to play a decisive role in the expansion of Islamic empire. In the 7 AH, the Jewish leaders of Khaybar – a place some 200 miles from Medina – started instigating the Jewish and Ghatafan tribes against Medina.[9][135] When negotiation failed, Muhammad ordered the blockade of the Khaybar forts, and its inhabitants surrendered after some days. The lands of Khaybar came under Muslim control. Muhammad however granted the Jewish request to retain the lands under their control.[9] In 629 CE (7 AH), in accordance with the terms of the Hudaybiyyah treaty, Muhammad and the Muslims performed their lesser pilgrimage (Umrah) to Mecca and left the city after three days.[136][137]

Conquest of Mecca

Main article: Conquest of Mecca

In 629 CE, The

Umar ibn al-Khattab wanted the execution of Abu Sufyan for his past offenses, but Muhammad spared his life after he converted to Islam.[141] On 11 December 629 (18th of Ramadan, 8 AH), he entered Mecca almost unresisted, and declared a general amnesty for all those who had committed offences against Islam and himself.[13][14] He then destroyed the idols – placed in and around the Kaaba – reciting the Quranic verse: "Say, the truth has arrived, and falsehood perished. Verily, the falsehood is bound to perish" (Q 17:81).[15][16] William Muir comments, "The magnanimity with which Muhammad treated a people who had so long hated and rejected him is worthy of all admiration."[142]

Conquest of Arabia

Main articles:
Battle of Tabouk

Soon after the Mecca conquest, the Banu

Ta'if, the Muslim army besieged it which however yielded no significant result, compelling them to return Medina. Meanwhile, some newly converts from the Hawazin tribe came to Muhammad and made a plea to release their women and children who had been captivated from the battlefield of Hunayn. Their request was granted by the Muslims.[147][148]

After the Mecca conquest and the victory at the Battle of Hunayn, the supremacy of the Muslims was somewhat established throughout the Arabian peninsula.[149][150] Various tribes started to send their representatives to express their loyalty to Muhammad. In the year 9 AH (630 CE), Zakat – which is the obligatory charity in Islam – was introduced and was accepted by most of the people. A few tribes initially refused to pay it, but gradually accepted.[151]

Tabuk, Saudi Arabia

In October 630 CE, upon receiving news that the

sun eclipse. When people said that the eclipse had occurred to mourn Ibrahim's death, Muhammad said: "the sun and the moon are from among the signs of God. The eclipses occur neither for the death nor for the birth of any man".[156][157] After the Tabuk expedition, the Banu Thaqif tribe of Taif sent their representative team to Muhammad to inform their intention of accepting Islam on condition that they be allowed to retain their Lat idol with them and that they be exempted from prayers. Given that there were inconsistent with Islamic principles, Muhammad rejected their demands and said "There is no good in a religion in which prayer is ruled out".[158][159][160] After Banu Thaqif tribe of Taif accepted Islam, many other tribes of Hejaz followed them and declared their allegiance to Islam.[161][162]

Final days

Farewell Pilgrimage

Main article: Farewell Pilgrimage

In 631 CE, during the Hajj season, Muhammad appointed

Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: "Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you" (Q 5:3).[165][166][167]

Death

Miniature image from the three-volume manuscript Siyer-un-Nebi (Progress of the Prophet); a copy made in 1594 by Ahmet Nur ibn Mustafa for Murad III from an earlier manuscript dated at 1368 attributed to Mustafa ibn Yusuf ibn Omer Erzeni Dariri.

Soon after his return from the pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness. He was confined to bed by Abu Bakr.[168] During his illness, he appointed Abu Bakr to lead the prayers in the mosque.[169][170] He ordered to donate the last remaining coins in his house as charity. It is narrated in Sahih al-Bukhari that at the time of death, Muhammad was dipping his hands in water and was wiping his face with them saying "There is no god but God; indeed death has its pangs."[171] He died on June 8 632, in Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha.[172][173]

Legacy

Final prophet

Main article:
Khatam an-Nabiyyin

Muhammad is regarded as the final messenger and prophet by all the main branches of Islam who was sent by God to guide humanity to the right way (

Shi'i Muslims.[179][180] Believing Muhammad is the last prophet is a fundamental belief in Islamic theology.[181][182]

Moral character

Muslims believe that Muhammad was the possessor of moral virtues at the highest level, and was a man of moral excellence.[23][166] He represented the 'prototype of human perfection' and was the best among God's creations.[23][183] The 68:4 verse of the Quran says: 'And you [Muhammad] are surely on exalted quality of character'. Consequently, to the Muslims, his life and character are an excellent example to be emulated both at social and spiritual levels.[166][183][184] The virtues that characterize him are modesty and humility, forgiveness and generosity, honesty, justice, patience, and, self-denial.[23][185] Muslim biographers of Muhammad in their books have shed much light on the moral character of Muhammad. Besides, there is a genre of biography that approaches his life focusing on his moral qualities rather than discussing the external affairs of his life.[23][166]

According to biographers, Muhammad lived a simple and austere life often characterized by poverty.

Fatima were accused of theft, I would pronounce the same verdict." He preferred mildness and leniency in behavior and in dealing with affairs,[186][194] and is reported as saying: "He who is not merciful to others, will not be treated mercifully (by God)" (Sahih al-Bukhari 6013). He pardoned many of his enemies in his life.[195] Biographers especially mention his forgiving the Meccan people after the Conquest of Mecca who at the early period of Islam tortured the Muslims for a long time, and later fought several battles with the Muslims.[13][14]

Muslim veneration

See also:
Na`at, Madih nabawi, Haḍra, and Dala'il al-Khayrat

Muhammad is highly venerated by the Muslims,[196] and is sometimes considered by them to be the greatest of all the prophets.[1][20][21] Muslims do not worship Muhammad as worship in Islam is only for God.[21][197][198] In Muhammad's own words, he said: 'Do not extol me as the Christians extolled the son of Mary, I am merely a servant'.[199] Muslim understanding and reverence for Muhammad can largely be traced to the teachings of Quran which emphatically describes Muhammad's exalted status. To begin with, the Quran describes Muhammad as al-nabi al-ummi or unlettered prophet (Q 7:158), meaning that he "received his religious knowledge only from God".[200] As a result, Muhammad's examples have been understood by the Muslims to represent the highest ideal for human conduct, and to reflect what God wants humanity to do. The Quran ranks Muhammad above previous prophets in terms of his moral excellence and the universal message he brought from God for humanity. The Quran calls him the "beautiful model" (al-uswa al-hasana) for those who hope for God and the last day (Q 33:21). Muslims believe that Muhammad was sent not for any specific people or region, but for all of humanity.[201]

Muslims venerate Muhammad in various ways:

Sunnah: A model for Muslims

For more than thirteen hundred years Muslims have modeled their lives after their prophet Muhammad. They awaken every morning as he awakened; they eat as he ate; they wash as he washed; and they behave even in the minutest acts of daily life as he behaved.

— S. A. Nigosian

In

Muslim legal and religious thought, Muhammad, inspired by God to act wisely and in accordance with his will, provides an example that complements God's revelation as expressed in the Quran; and his actions and sayings – known as Sunnah – are a model for Muslim conduct.[204] The Sunnah can be defined as "the actions, decisions, and practices that Muhammad approved, allowed, or condoned".[205] It also includes Muhammad's confirmation to someone's particular action or manner (during Muhammad's lifetime) which, when communicated to Muhammad, was generally approved by him.[206] The Sunnah, as recorded in the Hadith literature, encompasses everyday activities related to men's domestic, social, economic, political life.[205] It addresses a broad array of activities and Islamic beliefs ranging from the simple practices like, for example, the proper way of entering into a mosque, and private cleanliness to the most sublime questions involving the love between God and humans.[207] The Sunnah of Muhammad serves as a model for the Muslims to shape their life in that light. The Quran tells the believers to offer prayer, to fast, to perform pilgrimage, to pay Zakat, but it was Muhammad who practically taught the believers how to perform all these.[207] In Islamic theology, the necessity to follow the examples (the Sunnah) of Muhammad comes from the ruling of the Quran which it describes in its numerous verses. One such typical verse is "And obey God and the Messenger so that you may be blessed" (Q 3:132). The Quran uses two different terms to denote this: ita’ah (to obey) and ittiba (to follow). The former refers to the orders of Muhammad, and the latter to his acts and practices.[208] Muhammad often stressed the importance of education and intelligence in the Muslim Ummah because it removes ignorance and promotes acceptance and tolerance. This can be illustrated when Muhammad advises his cousin Ali that, "No poverty is more severe than ignorance and no property is more valuable than intelligence."[189]

Pre-existence

Muhammad is considered in Islamic tradition to be the first human in regards of the soul, preceding the creation of Adam. Accordingly, before the first physical human (

Ruh
) had already existed. This is based on several narratives circulating among Muslim tradition:

As recorded by Ibn Sa'd, Qatada ibn Di'ama quoted Muhammad: "I was the first human in creation and I am the last one on resurrection".[209]

According to a Shia tradition, after the angels prostrated themselves before Adam, God ordered Adam to look at the Throne of God. Then he saw the radiant body of Muhammad and his family.[210]

In Sunni Islam, this tradition appears in the form of a hadith, attributed to Al-Tirmidhi, stating that when Muhammad was asked, when his prophethood started, he answered: "When Adam was between the spirit and the body".[211] A more popular but less authenticated version states "when Adam was between water and mud."[212]

Both Sunni and Shia traditions report that, when Adam was in heaven, he read on the throne of God of the Shahada inscribed, thus, Muhammad already mentioned. The Shia traditions also includes Ali.[213]

Muhammad's soul is described as a form of Light (Nūr), before he took on physical form as a human being.[214] This light would have passed on from prophet to prophet until it manifested in the form of Muhammad. The Quranic Light verse is interpreted as Muhammad's primordial light essence.[215] This light would even shine during Muhammad's life. As reported by Bukhari, whenever Muhammad entered darkness, light was shining around him like moonlight.[216] Muhammad is further described as having a face radiant like light. For this reason, Muhammad's face is often blurred out by light or veiled in Islamic paintings.[217]

Some later Muslim scholars, especially among

proto-Salafi) even completely.[219] Instead, Muhammad's pre-existence means only, that he was destined to exist, but had no actual reality at the moment.[220] Despite some resemblance of the Christian doctrine of the pre-existence of Christ, Islam always depicts Muhammad as a created being and never as part or a person within God.[221]

Therefore, Muhammad is considered to be the first created prophet, but the last one sent.[222] The manifestation of the Muhammadan soul in the world is celebrated in the Muslim world during Mawlid, to welcome him as a blessing for humanity.[223]

Muhammad as lawgiver

In Islamic

Muhammad Taqi Usmani says, "one of the functions of the Holy Prophet (saaw) is to make lawful the good things and make unlawful the impure things. This function has been separated from bidding the fair and forbidding the unfair, because the latter relates to the preaching of what has already been established as fair, and warning against what is established as unfair, while the former embodies the making of lawful and unlawful".[226] Taqi Usmani recognizes two kinds of revelations – the "recited" one which is collectively known as Quran, and the "unrecited" one that Muhammad received from time to time to let him know God's will regarding how human affairs should be – and concludes that Muhammad's prophetic authority to promulgate new laws had its base on the later type. Therefore, in Islamic theology, the difference between God's authority and that of his messenger is of great significance: the former is wholly independent, intrinsic and self-existent, while the authority of the latter is derived from and dependent on the revelation from God.[227][228]

Muhammad as intercessor

Muslims see Muhammad as primary intercessor and believe that he will intercede on behalf of the believers on Last Judgment day.[229] This non-Qur'anic vision of Muhammad's eschatological role appears for the first time in the inscriptions of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, completed in 72/691-692.[230] Islamic tradition narrates that after resurrection when humanity will be gathered together and they will face distress due to heat and fear, they will come to Muhammad. Then he will intercede for them with God and the judgment will start.[231] Hadith narrates that Muhammad will also intercede for the believers who for their sins have been taken to hell. Muhammad's intercession will be granted and a lot of believers will come out of hell.[232]

Muhammad and the Quran

Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim
Part of a series on Islam
Islamic prophets
Prophets in the Quran
Listed by Islamic name and Biblical name.
Main events
Views
 Islam portal

To Muslims, the Quran is the verbatim word of God which was revealed, through

Gabriel, to Muhammad[233] who delivered it to people without any change (53:2-5 ,26:192-195), Thus, there exists a deep relationship between Muhammad and the Quran. Muslims believe that as a recipient of the Quran, Muhammad was the man who best understood the meaning of the Quran, was its chief interpreter, and was granted by God "the understanding of all levels of Quran's meaning".[234] In Islamic theology, if a report of Muhammad's Quranic interpretation is held to be authentic, then no other interpretative statement has higher theoretical value or importance than that.[225]

In Islamic belief, though the inner message of all the divine revelations given to Muhammad is essentially the same, there has been a "gradual evolution toward a final, perfect revelation".[235] It is in this case that Muhammad's revelation excels the previous ones as Muhammad's revelation is considered by the Muslims to be "the completion, culmination, and perfection of all the previous revelations".[235] Consequently, when the Quran declares that Muhammad is the final prophet after which there will be no future prophet (Q 33:40) it is also meant that the Quran is the last revealed divine book.

Names and titles of praise

See also:
Naat, Madih nabawi, Haḍra, and Dala'il al-Khayrat

Muhammad is often referenced with these titles of praise or epithet:

He also has these names:

Miracles

Main article: Miracles of Muhammad
Muslims.[237]

Several miracles are said to have been performed by Muhammad.

splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh.[239][240]

Isra and Mi'raj

Main article:
Isra and Mi'raj

The

Arabic: لَيلَة الإِِسرَاء والمِعرَاج‎), as one of the most significant events in the Islamic calendar.[246]

Splitting of the Moon

Main article: Splitting of the Moon

Islamic tradition credits Muhammad with the miracle of the splitting of the moon.[247][248] According to Islamic account, once when Muhammad was in Mecca, the pagans asked him to display a miracle as a proof of his prophethood. It was night time, and Muhammad prayed to God. The moon split into two and descended on two sides of a mountain. The pagans were still incredulous about the credibility of the event but later heard from the distant travelers that they also had witnessed the splitting of the moon.[247][248] Islamic tradition also tends to refute the arguments against the miracle raised by some quarters.[249]

During the Battle of the Trench

On the eve of the

Persia and he could see its white palaces. A third strike crushed the rock into pieces whereupon he again glorified God and said he had been given the keys of Yemen and he could see the gates of Sana. According to Muslim historians, these prophesies were fulfilled in subsequent times.[250][251]

The Spider and the Dove

When Muhammad and his close friend

Mount Thawr's cave. The cave had been concealed by a spider building a web and a dove building a nest at the entrance after they entered the cave,[252] therefore killing a spider became associated with sin.[253]

Visual representation

Main article: Depictions of Muhammad
See also:
List of films about Muhammad

Although Islam only explicitly condemns depicting the divinity, the prohibition was supplementally expanded to prophets and saints and among Arab Sunnism, to any living creature.

Safavid (1501–1722) periods. But apart from these notable exceptions and modern-day Iran,[256] depictions of Muhammad were rare, and if given, usually with his face veiled.[257][258]

Most modern Muslims believe that visual depictions of all the

prophets of Islam should be prohibited[259] and are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad.[260] One concern is that the use of images can encourage idolatry, but also creating an image might lead the artist to claim the ability to create, an ability only ascribed to God.[261]

Gallery

  • A view of Taif with a road at the foreground and mountains at the background. Muhammad went there to preach Islam.
    A view of Taif with a road at the foreground and mountains at the background. Muhammad went there to preach Islam.
  • Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina
    Masjid an-Nabawi
    in Medina
  • Inside view of Masjid an-Nabawi
    Inside view of
    Masjid an-Nabawi
  • The Green Dome built over Muhammad's tomb
    The Green Dome built over Muhammad's tomb
  • Part of Al-Masjid an-Nabawi where Muhammad's tomb is situated
    Part of
    Al-Masjid an-Nabawi
    where Muhammad's tomb is situated
  • Masjid an-Nabawi at sunset
    Masjid an-Nabawi
    at sunset
  • Facsimile of a letter sent by Muhammad to the Munzir Bin Sawa Al-Tamimi, governor of Bahrain
    Facsimile of a letter sent by Muhammad to the Munzir Bin Sawa Al-Tamimi, governor of Bahrain
  • Muhammad's letter to Heraclius
    Muhammad's letter to Heraclius

See also

Notes

  1. Philip Khuri Hitti
    fixed the date to be 571 CE. But August 20, 570 CE is generally accepted. See Muir, vol. ii, pp. 13–14 for further information.

References

  1. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-511233-7
    .
  2. ^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
  3. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5
    .
  4. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4
    .
  5. ^ a b "Muhammad (prophet)". Microsoft® Student 2008 [DVD] (Encarta Encyclopedia). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation. 2007.
  6. ISBN 978-81-85738-25-3
    .
  7. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  8. ^ Muir, William (1861). Life of Mahomet. Vol. 2. London: Smith, Elder, & Co. p. 55.
  9. ^
    Sirat-un-Nabi. Vol 1 Lahore
    .
  10. ^
    Hitti, Philip Khuri (1946). History of the Arabs
    . London: Macmillan and Co. p. 116.
  11. ^ "Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2013. Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
  12. ^ Ghali, Muhammad M (2004). The History of Muhammad: The Prophet and Messenger. Cairo: Al-Falah Foundation. p. 5. Archived from the original on 7 July 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
  13. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8
    .
  14. ^
    ISBN 978-983-9154-17-7
    .
  15. ^
    Hitti, Philip Khuri (1946). History of the Arabs
    . London: Macmillan and Co. p. 118.
  16. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8
    .
  17. ^ Campo (2009), "Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 494
  18. ISBN 978-0-19-577307-1
    .
  19. ^ Richard Foltz, "Internationalization of Islam", Encarta Historical Essays.
  20. ^
    ISBN 978-1-4412-5988-2. Archived
    from the original on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 29 September 2015.
  21. ^
    ISBN 978-0-237-53409-7. Archived
    from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 29 September 2015.
  22. ISBN 978-1-4908-4038-3. Archived
    from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 29 September 2015.
  23. ^
    ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0
    .
  24. ^ a b c d Matt Stefon (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices, p. 18
  25. ^
    ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4
    .
  26. Muhammad Shafi Usmani. Tafsir Maariful Quran (PDF). Vol. 6. p. 236. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 2012-02-19.
  27. S2CID 143431047
    . p. 128.
  28. S2CID 162350288
    .
  29. Madras. p. 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 October 2013. Retrieved 19 January 2013.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  30. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  31. C.E. Bosworth, Encyclopaedia of Islam
    , Volume 9 (1997), page 261.
  32. Eastern Christian
    churches, from which it occasionally found its way into Christian Arabic usage. It was only in the nineteenth century that the use of the name was revived in its modern Arabic form, frequently as Suriyya rather than the older Suriyah, to denote the whole of Bilad al-Sham: first of all in the Christian Arabic literature of the period, and under the influence of Western Europe. By the end of that century it had already replaced the name of Bilad al-Sham even in Muslim Arabic usage.
  33. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  34. ISBN 978-1-934271-21-6. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-29.
  35. ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8
    .
  36. ^ Muir, William (1861). Life of Mahomet. Vol. 2. London: Smith, Elder, & Co. p. xvii-xviii. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
  37. ^ Stefon, Islamic Beliefs and Practices, pp. 22–23
  38. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-31.
  39. ^ Ramadan (2007), p. 16
  40. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  41. ^ Al Mubarakpuri (2002); Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) pp. 81–3
  42. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  43. ^ Sell (1913), p. 12
  44. ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8
    .
  45. ISBN 9789960899558. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-31.
  46. ^ Stefon, Islamic Beliefs and Practices, p. 24
  47. ^ Al Mubarakpuri (2002); p. 80
  48. ^
    ISBN 978-0-631-21604-9
    .
  49. ^
    Madras
    : Smith, Elder, & Co. p. 29.
  50. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  51. ISBN 978-0-292-70862-4
    .
  52. ^ Sell (1913), p. 30
  53. ^ Ramadan (2007), p. 30
  54. ^ Al Mubarakpuri (2002); "Gabriel brings down the Revelation", pp. 86-7
  55. ISBN 978-0-8028-4427-9. Archived
    from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
  56. ^ "The Absolute Truth About Muhammad in the Bible With Arabic Titles". Truth Will Prevail Productions. Archived from the original on 2016-09-09. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
  57. ^ Muhammad foretold in the Bible: An Introduction Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine, by Abdus Sattar Ghauri, retrieved July 3, 2010
  58. ^ Campo (2009), "Revelation", Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 589
  59. ^
    Tafsir Maariful Quran. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 2012-09-15.
  60. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA570. The Quran is the sacred scripture of Islam. Muslims believe it contains the infallible word of God as revealed to Muhammad the Prophet in the Arabic language during the latter part of his life, between the years 610 and 632… (p. 570). Quran was revealed piecemeal during Muhammad's life, between 610 C.E. and 632 C.E., and that it was collected into a physical book (mushaf) only after his death. Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support this understanding of the Quran's early development, although they are unclear in other respects. They report that the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656) ordered a committee headed by Zayd ibn Thabit (d. ca. 655), Muhammad's scribe, to establish a single authoritative recension of the Quran… (p. 572-3). {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help
    )
  61. ISBN 9-78-0-415-32639-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C&pg=PA520. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help
    )
  62. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0
    .
  63. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4
    .
  64. ^ a b Campo (2009), "Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 492.
  65. ^
    ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4
    .
  66. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1
    .
  67. Hitti, Philip Khuri (1946). History of the Arabs
    . Macmillan and Co. pp. 113–4.
  68. ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4
    .
  69. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  70. ^ Hitti, Philip Khuri (1946). History of the Arabs. Macmillan and Co. p. 114.
  71. ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4
    .
  72. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  73. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  74. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8
    .
  75. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  76. ^ William Muir (1861). Life of Mahomet. vol. vol. 2, p.181
  77. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8
    .
  78. ISBN 978-0-8129-6618-3
    .
  79. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  80. ^
    ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4
    .
  81. ISBN 978-0-19-955928-2. Archived
    from the original on 2017-02-16.
  82. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8
    .
  83. Madras
    : Smith, Elder, & Co. p. 70.
  84. ^
    ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4
    .
  85. Madras
    : Smith, Elder, & Co. p. 71.
  86. ISBN 978-983-9154-17-7. Archived
    from the original on 2016-05-01.
  87. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  88. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  89. Madras
    : Smith, Elder, & Co. p. 76.
  90. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    . Accordingly, within a very short period, despite the opposition of the Quraysh, most of the Muslims in Mecca managed to migrate to Yathrib.
  91. ^
    ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4
    .
  92. ISBN 978-977-6005-17-4
    .
  93. ^ "Ya-Seen Ninth Verse". Archived from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 4 February 2014. Quran Surah Yaseen ( Verse 9 ) Archived 2019-11-11 at the Wayback Machine
  94. ^ a b Shaikh, Fazlur Rehman (2001). Chronology of Prophetic Events. London: Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. pp. 51–52.
  95. ^ F. A. Shamsi, "The Date of Hijrah", Islamic Studies 23 (1984): 189-224, 289-323 (JSTOR link 1 Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine + JSTOR link 2 Archived 2016-12-26 at the Wayback Machine).
  96. ^ Armstrong (2002), p. 14
  97. ^ Muir (1861), vol. 3, p. 17
  98. ^ Ibn Kathir (2001), Translated by Sayed Gad, p. 396
  99. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  100. ^ Sell (1913), pp. 86-87.
  101. ^ Campo (2009), Muhammad, Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 493
  102. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8. Archived
    from the original on 2013-05-27. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
  103. ^ a b Khan, Muhammad Zafrullah (1980). Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets, p. 90
  104. ^ "Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2013. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
  105. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  106. ISBN 978-0-226-70281-0
    .
  107. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  108. ^ Armstrong (2002), p. 19
  109. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  110. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  111. ^ Al Mubarakpuri (2002), "Permission to fight"
  112. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  113. ^ Haykal (2008), pp. 225–26
  114. Tafsir Maariful Quran. Vol. 4. English Translation by Muhammad Shameem. Lahore. pp. 160–1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  115. ISBN 978-0-19-577307-1
    .
  116. ^
    Tafsir Maariful Quran. Vol. 4. Lahore. p. 163.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  117. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8
    .
  118. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8
    .
  119. ^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. p. 11.
  120. Tafsir Maariful Quran. Vol. 4. Lahore. pp. 169–70.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  121. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  122. ISBN 9789960899558. Archived
    from the original on 2013-05-27.
  123. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  124. ISBN 9789960899558. Archived
    from the original on 2013-05-27.
  125. ISBN 9789839154177. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-25.
  126. ^ Peterson, Muhammad: the prophet of God, p. 125-127.
  127. ^ Ramadan, In the Footsteps of the Prophet, p. 140.
  128. ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8
    .
  129. ^ Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, vol. 1, p. 191.
  130. ^ Brown, A New Introduction to Islam, p. 81.
  131. ISBN 978-0-89281-170-0
    .
  132. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4
    .
  133. ISBN 9789839154177. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-25.
  134. ISBN 978-0-89281-170-0
    .
  135. ISBN 9780710006103. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-25.
  136. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4
    .
  137. ISBN 978-983-9154-17-7
    .
  138. ^ Khan, Majid Ali (1998), p. 274
  139. ^ Khan, Majid Ali (1998), p. 274-5
  140. ^ Fazlur Rehman Shaikh (2001). Chronology of Prophetic Events. London: Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. p. 72.
  141. ISBN 9789839154177. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-25.
  142. ^ "An Outline of the Life of Muhammad". Archived from the original on 3 January 2012. Retrieved 17 June 2013.
  143. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  144. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8
    .
  145. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  146. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8
    .
  147. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  148. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8
    .
  149. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  150. ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4
    .
  151. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  152. ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8
    .
  153. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  154. ISBN 978-0-89281-170-0
    .
  155. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  156. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  157. ISBN 978-1-4907-2912-1
    .
  158. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  159. ISBN 978-0-89281-170-0
    .
  160. ^ Al-Mubarakpuri (2014). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet. Darussalam. pp. 280–1.
  161. ISBN 9789839154177
    . With the destruction of al Lat and the conversion of al-Thaqif, the conversion of the Hijaz was complete. Muhammad's power expanded from the frontiers of Byzantium in the north to al Yaman and Hadramawt in the south. The territories of South Arabia were all preparing to join the new religion and integrate themselves into a system of defense. That is why delegations from all corners proceeded to Madinah to declare allegiance to the new order and to convert to the new faith.
  162. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    . The adhesion of Taif and the destruction of its famous idol had enhanced the Holy Prophet's fame throughout the south and east of the peninsula. A stream of submissive embassies from all quarters now flowed uninterruptedly towards Medina.
  163. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  164. ISBN 978-0-7914-1875-8
    .
  165. ^
    ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  166. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA494. Archived from the original on 2015-09-30. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help
    )
  167. Tafsir Maariful Quran. Vol. 3. English Translation by Muhammad Shamim. Lahore. p. 45.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  168. ^ Muir 1892, p. 1.
  169. ISBN 9789839154177
    .
  170. ISBN 978-0-89281-170-0
    .
  171. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C&pg=PA171. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help
    )
  172. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4
    .
  173. ^ Shaikh, Fazlur Rehman (2001). Chronology of Prophetic Events. London: Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. pp. 78–79.
  174. ISBN 9781118053966. Archived
    from the original on 2015-09-24.
  175. ^ "Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2013. Archived from the original on 2 February 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
  176. ^ Esposito, John L., ed. (2003). "Khatam al-Nabiyyin". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 171. Khatam al-Nabiyyin: Seal of the prophets. Phrase occurs in Quran 33:40, referring to Muhammad, and is regarded by Muslims as meaning that he is the last of the series of prophets that began with Adam.
  177. ^ Mir, Mustansir (1987). "Seal of the Prophets, The". Dictionary of Qur'ānic Terms and Concepts. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 171. Muḥammad is called "the seal of the prophets" in 33:40. The expression means that Muḥammad is the final prophet, and that the institution of prophecy after him is "sealed."
  178. ^ Hughes, Thomas Patrick (1885). "K͟HĀTIMU 'N-NABĪYĪN". A Dictionary of Islam: Being a Cyclopædia of the Doctrines, Rites, Ceremonies, and Customs, Together with the Technical and Theological Terms, of the Muhammadan Religion. London: W. H. Allen. p. 270. Archived from the original on 2015-10-04. K͟HĀTIMU 'N-NABĪYĪN (خاتم النبيين). "The seal of the Prophets." A title assumed by Muhammad in the Qur'ān. Surah xxxiii. 40: "He is the Apostle of God and the 'seal of the Prophets'." By which is meant, that he is the last of the Prophets.
  179. ISBN 0691100993. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-05. Sunnī and Shī'ī theology alike understood it to mean that Muhammad ended the series of Prophets, that he had accomplished for all eternity what his predecessors had prepared, that he was God's last messenger delivering God's last message to mankind.
  180. ^ Martin, Richard C., ed. (2004). "'Ali". Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Vol. 1. New York: Macmillan. p. 37.
  181. ISBN 978-1-61069-178-9. Archived
    from the original on 2016-04-27.
  182. ISBN 978-0-292-70862-4. Archived
    from the original on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
  183. ^
    ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4
    .
  184. ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8
    .
  185. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  186. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    .
  187. ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8
    .
  188. ^
    Sirat-un-Nabi, vol 2. Lahore
  189. ^
    ISBN 9780991430864
    .
  190. ISBN 978-977-6005-17-4
    .
  191. ISBN 978-0-7100-0610-3
    . He was most forgiving and forbearing in respect of personal wrongs suffered by him.
  192. ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8
    . He scrupulously applied the principles of honesty and justice that Islam had taught him, whomever he dealt with, be they Muslims or non-Muslims.
  193. ISBN 978-0-8018-6974-7
    .
  194. ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8
    .
  195. ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8
    .
  196. ISBN 978-0-415-34888-1. Archived
    from the original on 2015-09-29.
  197. ISBN 978-0-313-36025-1
    .
  198. ISBN 978-0-87586-194-4. Archived
    from the original on 2016-05-27.
  199. ISBN 978-0-19-955345-7
    .
  200. ^ a b Campo (2009), p. 494
  201. ^ Zeki Saritoprak (2013). "The Universal Message of the Prophet". OnIslam. OnIslam.net. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
  202. ISBN 978-0-304-70401-9. Archived
    from the original on 2015-09-22.
  203. ISBN 978-1-118-05396-6. Archived
    from the original on 2015-09-24.
  204. ^ "Sunnah." In The Islamic World: Past and Present. Ed. John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 22-Apr-2013. "Sunnah - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Archived from the original on 2014-04-19. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
  205. ^ a b Nigosian (2004), p. 80
  206. Muhammad Taqi Usmani (2004). The Authority of Sunnah. p. 6. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-22.
  207. ^ a b Stefon, Islamic Beliefs and Practices, p. 59
  208. ^ ʻus̲Mānī, Muḥammad Taqī (2004). The Authority of Sunnah. p. 9. Archived from the original on 2015-12-04.
  209. ^ Goldziher, Ignaz. "Neuplatonische und gnostische Elemente im Ḥadῑṯ." (1909): 317-344.
  210. ^ M.J. Kister Adam: A Study of Some Legends in Tafsir and Hadit Literature Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of The Qur'an, Oxford 1988 p. 129
  211. ISBN 978-1-135-98394-9
    page 13
  212. ISBN 978-9-004-02598-1
    page 177
  213. ^ M.J. Kister Adam: A Study of Some Legends in Tafsir and Hadit Literature Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of The Qur'an, Oxford 1988 p. 129
  214. ISBN 978-1-136-84125-5
  215. ^ Katz, M. H. (2007). The Birth of The Prophet Muhammad: Devotional Piety in Sunni Islam. Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis. p. 13
  216. ^ Gruber, Christiane. "Between logos (Kalima) and light (Nūr): representations of the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic painting." Muqarnas, Volume 26. Brill, 2009. 229-262.
  217. ^ Gruber, Christiane. "Between logos (Kalima) and light (Nūr): representations of the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic painting." Muqarnas, Volume 26. Brill, 2009. 229-262.
  218. ^ Rustom, Mohammed. "The cosmology of the Muhammadan Reality." Ishrāq: Islamic Philosophy Yearbook 4 (2013): 540-5.
  219. ISBN 978-1-135-98394-9
    page 14
  220. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5985
    First published online: 2012 First print edition:
    ISBN 9789004161214
    , 1960-2007
  221. ISBN 978-1-135-02969-2
  222. ISBN 978-1-135-98394-9
    page 13
  223. ISBN 978-1-135-98394-9
    page 15
  224. Muhammad Taqi Usmani (2004). The Authority of Sunnah. p. 5. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-22.
  225. ^ a b Abdur Rahman (2006-06-22). "The Life & Significance of Muhammad". Retrieved 8 March 2013.
  226. ^ ʻus̲Mānī, Muḥammad Taqī (2004). The Authority of Sunnah. pp. 46–47. Archived from the original on 2015-10-22.
  227. ^ ʻus̲Mānī, Muḥammad Taqī (2004). The Authority of Sunnah. p. 48. Archived from the original on 2015-10-22.
  228. ISBN 978-0-313-04709-1. Archived
    from the original on 2017-04-27.
  229. ISBN 9781118053966. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-29.
  230. ISBN 979-10-351-0577-8
  231. Tafsir Maariful Quran. Vol. 5. English Translation by Muhammad Shameem. Lahore. pp. 538. See commentary on 17:79.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  232. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 9:93:507
  233. ISBN 978-0-304-70401-9
    .
  234. ^ "Muhammad and the Quran". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2013. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
  235. ^ a b Nigosian (2004), p. 17
  236. ^ Ibn al-'Arabi, Muhyi al-Din (1164–1240), The 'perfect human' and the Muhammadan reality Archived 2011-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
  237. ISBN 978-0-674-02313-0. Archived
    from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
  238. ^ A.J. Wensinck, Muʿd̲j̲iza, Encyclopedia of Islam
  239. Encyclopedia of the Quran
  240. Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
    , Moon
  241. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8
    .
  242. ^ Quran 17:1
  243. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA185. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help
    )
  244. ISBN 978-0-415-96785-3
    .
  245. ISBN 978-1-4343-5586-7
    . Retrieved 27 March 2011.
  246. ^ Bradlow, Khadija (August 18, 2007). "A night journey through Jerusalem". Times Online. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
  247. ^
    Tafsir Maariful Quran. Vol. 8. English Translation by Ahmed Khalil Aziz. Lahore. pp. 238–240.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  248. ^
    Al-Khasais-ul-Kubra
    .
  249. Tafsir Maariful Quran. Vol. 8. Lahore. pp. 240–2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
    )
  250. ISBN 9780710006103. Archived
    from the original on 2015-10-05.
  251. ^ Al-Suyuti, Al-Khasais-ul-Kubra. Vol 2
  252. ^ Jane Dammen McAuliffe Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān Volume 1 Georgetown University, Washington DC p. 293
  253. ISBN 978-1-780-74477-3
  254. ^ Titus Burckhardt The Void in Islamic Art Studies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 16, No. 1 & 2 (Winter-Spring, 1984 p. 2
  255. JSTOR 860736
    .
  256. ISBN 978-0-253-00894-7. See also [1] and [2]
    .
  257. ISBN 978-1-931956-91-8
    .
  258. ISBN 978-90-04-08655-5
    . Retrieved 14 November 2011.
  259. ISBN 978-1-4094-2750-6
    .
  260. ^ Devotion in pictures: Muslim popular iconography – The prophet Muhammad, University of Bergen
  261. ISBN 978-0-88706-161-5
    .

Bibliography
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_in_Islam&oldid=1219067132"