Proto-Indo-European language
Proto-Indo-European | |
---|---|
PIE | |
Reconstruction of | Indo-European languages |
Region | Pontic–Caspian steppe (Proto-Indo-European homeland) |
Era | c. 3000 – c. 2500 BC |
Lower-order reconstructions |
Part of a series on |
Indo-European topics |
---|
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the
Far more work has gone into reconstructing PIE than any other proto-language, and it is the best understood of all proto-languages of its age. The majority of linguistic work during the 19th century was devoted to the reconstruction of PIE or its daughter languages, and many of the modern techniques of linguistic reconstruction (such as the comparative method) were developed as a result.[citation needed]
PIE is hypothesized to have been spoken as a single language from approximately 4500 BCE to 2500 BCE
As speakers of Proto-Indo-European became isolated from each other through the Indo-European migrations, the regional dialects of Proto-Indo-European spoken by the various groups diverged, as each dialect underwent shifts in pronunciation (the Indo-European sound laws), morphology, and vocabulary. Over many centuries, these dialects transformed into the known ancient Indo-European languages. From there, further linguistic divergence led to the evolution of their current descendants, the modern Indo-European languages.
PIE is believed to have had an elaborate system of morphology that included inflectional suffixes (analogous to English child, child's, children, children's) as well as ablaut (vowel alterations, as preserved in English sing, sang, sung, song) and accent. PIE nominals and pronouns had a complex system of declension, and verbs similarly had a complex system of conjugation. The PIE phonology, particles, numerals, and copula are also well-reconstructed.
Asterisks are used by linguists as a conventional mark of reconstructed words, such as *wódr̥, *ḱwn̥tós, or *tréyes; these forms are the reconstructed ancestors of the modern English words water, hound, and three, respectively.
Development of the hypothesis
No direct evidence of PIE exists; scholars have reconstructed PIE from its present-day descendants using the
In 1818,
In 1822, Jacob Grimm formulated what became known as Grimm's law as a general rule in his Deutsche Grammatik. Grimm showed correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages and demonstrated that sound change systematically transforms all words of a language.[13] From the 1870s, the Neogrammarians proposed that sound laws have no exceptions, as illustrated by Verner's law, published in 1876, which resolved apparent exceptions to Grimm's law by exploring the role of accent (stress) in language change.[14]
August Schleicher's A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages (1874–77) represented an early attempt to reconstruct the proto-Indo-European language.[15]
By the early 1900s,
Julius Pokorny's Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch ('Indo-European Etymological Dictionary', 1959) gave a detailed, though conservative, overview of the lexical knowledge accumulated by 1959. Jerzy Kuryłowicz's 1956 Apophonie gave a better understanding of Indo-European ablaut. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became robust enough to establish its relationship to PIE.
Historical and geographical setting
Scholars have proposed multiple hypotheses about when, where, and by whom PIE was spoken. The Kurgan hypothesis, first put forward in 1956 by Marija Gimbutas, has become the most popular.[a] It proposes that the original speakers of PIE were the Yamnaya culture associated with the kurgans (burial mounds) on the Pontic–Caspian steppe north of the Black Sea.[22]: 305–7 [23] According to the theory, they were nomadic pastoralists who domesticated the horse, which allowed them to migrate across Europe and Asia in wagons and chariots.[23] By the early 3rd millennium BCE, they had expanded throughout the Pontic–Caspian steppe and into eastern Europe.[24]
Other theories include the
Descendants
The table lists the main Indo-European language families, comprising the languages descended from Proto-Indo-European.
Clade | Proto-language | Description | Historical languages | Modern descendants |
---|---|---|---|---|
Anatolian | Proto-Anatolian | All now extinct, the best attested being the Hittite language. | There are no living descendants of Proto-Anatolian. | |
Tocharian | Proto-Tocharian | An extinct branch known from manuscripts dating from the 6th to the 8th century AD and found in northwest China. | Tocharian A, Tocharian B | There are no living descendants of Proto-Tocharian. |
Italic | Proto-Italic | This included many languages, but only descendants of Latin (the Romance languages) survive. | ||
Celtic | Proto-Celtic | Once spoken across Europe, but now mostly confined to its northwestern edge. | Middle Welsh, Gallaecian, Galatian
|
Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, Breton, Cornish, Manx |
Germanic | Proto-Germanic | Branched into three subfamilies: West Germanic, East Germanic (now extinct), and North Germanic. | ||
Balto-Slavic | Proto-Balto-Slavic | Branched into the Baltic languages and the Slavic languages. | Baltic: Latvian, Latgalian and Lithuanian;
Slavic: | |
Indo-Iranian | Proto-Indo-Iranian | Branched into the Indo-Aryan, Iranian and Nuristani languages. | Avestan, Bactrian
|
Indo-Aryan: revived );
Iranic: ; Nuristani |
Armenian | Proto-Armenian | Branched into Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian. | Classical Armenian | Armenian |
Hellenic | Proto-Greek | Modern Greek and Tsakonian are the only surviving varieties of Greek. | Ancient Greek, Ancient Macedonian | Greek, Tsakonian |
Albanian | Proto-Albanian | Albanian is the only surviving representative of the Albanoid branch of the Indo-European language family.[32][33] | Daco-Thracian (disputed)
|
Albanian (Gheg and Tosk) |
Commonly proposed subgroups of Indo-European languages include
There are numerous lexical similarities between the Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Kartvelian languages due to early language contact,[citation needed] though some morphological similarities—notably the Indo-European ablaut, which is remarkably similar to the root ablaut system reconstructible for Proto-Kartvelian.[34][35]
Marginally attested languages
The Lusitanian language was a marginally attested language spoken in areas near the border between present-day Portugal and Spain.
The Venetic and Liburnian languages known from the North Adriatic region are sometimes classified as Italic.
Albanian and Greek are the only surviving Indo-European descendants of a
Phonology
Proto-Indo-European phonology has been reconstructed in some detail. Notable features of the most widely accepted (but not uncontroversial) reconstruction include:
- three series of voiced, and breathy voiced;
- sonorant consonants that could be used syllabically;
- three so-called laryngeal consonants, whose exact pronunciation is not well-established but which are believed to have existed in part based on their detectable effects on adjacent sounds;
- the fricative /s/
- a vowel system in which /e/ and /o/ were the most frequently occurring vowels. The existence of /a/ as a separate phoneme is debated.
Notation
Vowels
The vowels in commonly used notation are:[39]
Type | length | front | back |
---|---|---|---|
Mid | short | *e | *o |
long | *ē | *ō |
Consonants
The corresponding consonants in commonly used notation are:[40][41]
Type | Labial | Coronal | Dorsal | Laryngeal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
palatal | plain | labial | |||||
Nasals | *m | *n | |||||
Stops
|
voiceless | *p | *t | *ḱ | *k | *kʷ | |
voiced | (*b) | *d | *ǵ | *g | *gʷ | ||
aspirated | *bʰ | *dʰ | *ǵʰ | *gʰ | *gʷʰ | ||
Fricatives
|
*s | *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ | |||||
Liquids | *r,*l | ||||||
Semivowels
|
*y | *w |
All sonorants (i.e. nasals, liquids and semivowels) can appear in syllabic position. The syllabic allophones of *y and *w are realized as the surface vowels *i and *u respectively.[42]
Accent
The Proto-Indo-European accent is reconstructed today as having had variable lexical stress, which could appear on any syllable and whose position often varied among different members of a paradigm (e.g. between singular and plural of a verbal paradigm). Stressed syllables received a higher pitch; therefore it is often said that PIE had a pitch accent. The location of the stress is associated with ablaut variations, especially between full-grade vowels (/e/ and /o/) and zero-grade (i.e. lack of a vowel), but not entirely predictable from it.
The accent is best preserved in
Morphology
Root
Ablaut
Many morphemes in Proto-Indo-European had short e as their inherent vowel; the
Categories that PIE distinguished through ablaut were often also identifiable by contrasting endings, but the loss of these endings in some later Indo-European languages has led them to use ablaut alone to identify grammatical categories, as in the Modern English words sing, sang, sung.
Noun
Proto-Indo-European nouns were probably declined for eight or nine cases:[45]
- copulative verb) and restate the subject of that verb also use the nominative case. The nominative is the dictionary form of the noun.
- direct object of a transitive verb.
- genitive: marks a noun as modifying another noun.
- dative: used to indicate the indirect object of a transitive verb, such as Jacob in Maria gave Jacob a drink.
- instrumental: marks the instrument or means by, or with, which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action. It may be either a physical object or an abstract concept.
- ablative: used to express motion away from something.
- locative: expresses location, corresponding vaguely to the English prepositions in, on, at, and by.
- vocative: used for a word that identifies an addressee. A vocative expression is one of direct address where the identity of the party spoken to is set forth expressly within a sentence. For example, in the sentence, "I don't know, John", John is a vocative expression that indicates the party being addressed.
- allative: used as a type of locative case that expresses movement towards something. It was preserved in Anatolian (particularly Old Hittite), and fossilized traces of it have been found in Greek. It is also present in Tocharian.[46] Its PIE shape is uncertain, with candidates including *-h2(e), *-(e)h2, or *-a.[47]
Late Proto-Indo-European had three grammatical genders:
- masculine
- feminine
- neuter
This system is probably derived from an older two-gender system, attested in Anatolian languages:
All nominals distinguished three numbers:
- singular
- dual
- plural
These numbers were also distinguished in verbs (see below), requiring agreement with their subject nominal.
Pronoun
Case | First person | Second person | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Nominative | *h₁eǵ(oH/Hom) | *wei | *tuH | *yuH |
Accusative | *h₁mé, *h₁me | *n̥smé, *nōs | *twé | *usmé, *wōs |
Genitive | *h₁méne, *h₁moi | *ns(er)o-, *nos | *tewe, *toi | *yus(er)o-, *wos |
Dative | *h₁méǵʰio, *h₁moi | *nsmei, *ns | *tébʰio, *toi | *usmei |
Instrumental | *h₁moí | *nsmoí | *toí | *usmoí |
Ablative | *h₁med | *nsmed | *tued | *usmed |
Locative | *h₁moí | *nsmi | *toí | *usmi |
Verb
Proto-Indo-European verbs, like the nouns, exhibited a system of ablaut.
The most basic categorisation for the reconstructed Indo-European verb is grammatical aspect. Verbs are classed as:
- stative: verbs that depict a state of being
- imperfective: verbs depicting ongoing, habitual or repeated action
- perfective: verbs depicting a completed action or actions viewed as an entire process.
Verbs have at least four grammatical moods:
- declarative sentences.
- imperative: forms commands or requests, including the giving of prohibition or permission, or any other kind of advice or exhortation.
- subjunctive: used to express various states of unreality such as wish, emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, obligation, or action that has not yet occurred
- cohortative mood and is closely related to the subjunctive mood.
Verbs had two
- active: used in a clause whose subject expresses the main verb's agent.
- middle voice and the passive voice.
Verbs had three grammatical persons: first, second and third.
Verbs had three grammatical numbers:
- singular
- dual: referring to precisely two of the entities (objects or persons) identified by the noun or pronoun.
- plural: a number other than singular or dual.
Verbs were probably marked by a highly developed system of participles, one for each combination of tense and voice, and an assorted array of verbal nouns and adjectival formations.
The following table shows a possible reconstruction of the PIE verb endings from Sihler, which largely represents the current consensus among Indo-Europeanists.
Person | Sihler (1995)[50] | ||
---|---|---|---|
Athematic
|
Thematic
| ||
Singular | 1st | *-mi | *-oh₂ |
2nd | *-si | *-esi | |
3rd | *-ti | *-eti | |
Dual | 1st | *-wos | *-owos |
2nd | *-th₁es | *-eth₁es | |
3rd | *-tes | *-etes | |
Plural | 1st | *-mos | *-omos |
2nd | *-te | *-ete | |
3rd | *-nti | *-onti |
Numbers
Proto-Indo-European numerals are generally reconstructed as follows:
Number | Sihler[50] |
---|---|
one | *(H)óynos/*(H)óywos/*(H)óyk(ʷ)os; *sḗm (full grade), *sm̥- (zero grade) |
two | *d(u)wóh₁ (full grade), *dwi- (zero grade) |
three | *tréyes (full grade), *tri- (zero grade) |
four | *kʷetwóres (o-grade), *kʷ(e)twr̥- (zero grade) (see also the kʷetwóres rule )
|
five | *pénkʷe |
six | *s(w)éḱs; originally perhaps *wéḱs, with *s- under the influence of *septḿ̥ |
seven | *septḿ̥ |
eight | *oḱtṓ(w) or *h₃eḱtṓ(w) |
nine | *h₁néwn̥ |
ten | *déḱm̥(t) |
Rather than specifically 100, *ḱm̥tóm may originally have meant "a large number".[51]
Particle
Reconstructed particles include for example, *upo "under, below"; the
, *wai!, expressing woe or agony.Derivational morphology
Proto-Indo-European employed various means of deriving words from other words, or directly from verb roots.
Internal derivation
Internal derivation was a process that derived new words through changes in accent and ablaut alone. It was not as productive as external (affixing) derivation, but is firmly established by the evidence of various later languages.
Possessive adjectives
Possessive or associated adjectives were probably created from nouns through internal derivation. Such words could be used directly as adjectives, or they could be turned back into a noun without any change in morphology, indicating someone or something characterised by the adjective. They were probably also used as the second elements in compounds. If the first element was a noun, this created an adjective that resembled a present participle in meaning, e.g. "having much rice" or "cutting trees". When turned back into nouns, such compounds were Bahuvrihis or semantically resembled agent nouns.
In thematic stems, creating a possessive adjective seems to have involved shifting the accent one syllable to the right, for example:[52]
- *tómh₁-o-s "slice" (Greek tómos) > *tomh₁-ó-s "cutting" (i.e. "making slices"; Greek tomós) > *dr-u-tomh₁-ó-s "cutting trees" (Greek drutómos "woodcutter" with irregular accent).
- *wólh₁-o-s "wish" (Sanskrit vára-) > *wolh₁-ó-s "having wishes" (Sanskrit vará- "suitor").
In athematic stems, there was a change in the accent/ablaut class. The reconstructed four classes followed an ordering in which a derivation would shift the class one to the right:[52]
- acrostatic → proterokinetic → hysterokinetic → amphikinetic
The reason for this particular ordering of the classes in derivation is not known. Some examples:
- Acrostatic *krót-u-s ~ *krét-u-s "strength" (Sanskrit krátu-) > proterokinetic *krét-u-s ~ *kr̥t-éw-s "having strength, strong" (Greek kratús).
- Hysterokinetic *ph₂-tḗr ~ *ph₂-tr-és "father" (Greek patḗr) > amphikinetic *h₁su-péh₂-tōr ~ *h₁su-ph₂-tr-és "having a good father" (Greek εὑπάτωρ, eupátōr).
Vrddhi
A
Examples:[53]
- full grade *swéḱuro-s "father-in-law" (Vedic Sanskrit śváśura-) > lengthened grade *swēḱuró-s "relating to one's father-in-law" (Vedic śvāśura-, Old High German swāgur "brother-in-law").
- full grade *dyḗw-s > zero grade *diw-és "sky" > new full grade *deyw-o-s "god, sky god" (Vedic devás, Latindeus, etc.). Note the difference in vowel placement, *dyew- in the full-grade stem of the original noun, but *deyw- in the vrddhi derivative.
Nominalization
Adjectives with accent on the thematic vowel could be turned into nouns by moving the accent back onto the root. A zero grade root could remain so, or be "upgraded" to full grade like in a vrddhi derivative. Some examples:[54]
- PIE *ǵn̥h₁-tó-s "born" (Vedic jātá-) > *ǵénh₁-to- "thing that is born" (German Kind).
- Greek leukós "white" > leũkos "a kind of fish", literally "white one".
- Vedic kṛṣṇá- "dark" > kṛ́ṣṇa- "dark one", also "antelope".
This kind of derivation is likely related to the possessive adjectives, and can be seen as essentially the reverse of it.
Affixal derivation
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (May 2019) |
Syntax
The syntax of the older Indo-European languages has been studied in earnest since at least the late nineteenth century, by such scholars as Hermann Hirt and Berthold Delbrück. In the second half of the twentieth century, interest in the topic increased and led to reconstructions of Proto-Indo-European syntax.[55]
Since all the early attested IE languages were inflectional, PIE is thought to have relied primarily on morphological markers, rather than
Paul Friedrich (1975) disagrees with Lehmann's analysis. He reconstructs PIE with the following syntax:
- basic SVO word order
- adjectives before nouns
- head nouns before genitives
- prepositionsrather than postpositions
- no dominant order in comparative constructions
- main clauses before relative clauses
Friedrich notes that even among those Indo-European languages with basic OV word order, none of them are rigidly OV. He also notes that these non-rigid OV languages mainly occur in parts of the IE area that overlap with OV languages from other families (such as
See also
- Indo-European vocabulary
- Proto-Indo-European verbs
- Proto-Indo-European pronouns
- List of Indo-European languages
- Indo-European sound laws
- List of proto-languages
Notes
- ^ See:
- Bomhard: "This scenario is supported not only by linguistic evidence, but also by a growing body of archeological and genetic evidence. The Indo-Europeans have been identified with several cultural complexes existing in that area between 4,500—3,500 BCE. The literature supporting such a homeland is both extensive and persuasive [...]. Consequently, other scenarios regarding the possible Indo-European homeland, such as Anatolia, have now been mostly abandoned."[18]
- Anthony & Ringe: "Archaeological evidence and linguistic evidence converge in support of an origin of Indo-European languages on the Pontic-Caspian steppes around 4,000 years BCE. The evidence is so strong that arguments in support of other hypotheses should be reexamined."[19]
- Mallory: "The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It is the solution one encounters in the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse."[20]
- Strazny: "The single most popular proposal is the Pontic steppes (see the Kurgan hypothesis)..."[21]
References
- ^ "Indo-European languages – The parent language: Proto-Indo-European". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
- ^ "Archaeology et al: an Indo-European study" (PDF). School of History, Classics and Archaeology. The University of Edinburgh. 11 April 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
- ^ Powell, Eric A. "Telling Tales in Proto-Indo-European". Archaeology. Retrieved 30 July 2017.
- ^ Fortson (2010), p. 16.
- ^ "Linguistics – The comparative method". Science. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
- ^ "Comparative linguistics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
- ^ "Sir William Jones, British orientalist and jurist". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
- ISBN 3-11-016735-2.
- ^ Blench, Roger (2004). "Archaeology and language: Methods and issues". In Bintliff, J. (ed.). A Companion to Archaeology (PDF). Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. pp. 52–74.
- ^ Wheeler, Kip. "The Sanskrit Connection: Keeping Up With the Joneses". Carson–Newman University. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-521-51886-4.
- ^ "Franz Bopp, German philologist". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
- ^ "Grimm's law, linguistics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
- ^ "Neogrammarian, German scholar". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
- ^ "August Schleicher, German linguist". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
- ^ Saussure, Ferdinand de (1879). Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes. University of California Libraries. Leipsick : B. G. Teubner.
- ^ Kuryłowicz, Jerzy (1927). "ə indo-européen et ḫ hittite". In: Witold Taszycki and Witold Doroszewki (eds.), Symbolae Grammaticae in honorem Ioannis Rozwadowski, v. 1, 95–104. Krakow: Uniwersytet Jagielloński.
- ^ Bomhard 2019, p. 2.
- ^ Anthony & Ringe 2015, pp. 199–219.
- ^ Mallory 1989, p. 185.
- ^ Strazny 2000, p. 163.
- ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0.
- ^ . Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ Gimbutas, Marija (1985). "Primary and Secondary Homeland of the Indo-Europeans: comments on Gamkrelidze-Ivanov articles". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 13 (1–2): 185–202.
- PMID 22923579
- S2CID 143978664.
- ISBN 9788123747798.
- ^ "The opposing argument, that speakers of Indo-European languages were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, is not supported by any reliable scholarship". Doniger, Wendy (2017). "Another Great Story" Archived 14 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine", review of Asko Parpola's The Roots of Hinduism. In: Inference, International Review of Science, Volume 3, Issue 2.
- OCLC 139999117.
- ^ Renfrew, Colin (2017) "Marija Redivia : DNA and Indo-European origins" (The Oriental Institute lecture series : Marija Gimbutas memorial lecture, Chicago. November 8, 2017).
- S2CID 171874630.
- ISBN 9789027263179. pp. 383–386.
- ^ "Perfect Phylogenetic Networks: A New Methodology for Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Natural Languages, pg. 396" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 November 2010. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
- ^ Gamkrelidze, Th. & Ivanov, V. (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture. 2 Vols. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
- ^ Gamkrelidze, T. V. (2008). Kartvelian and Indo-European: a typological comparison of reconstructed linguistic systems. Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences 2 (2): 154–160.
- ISBN 9781139469333.
- S2CID 242082908.
- S2CID 215769896.
- ^ Kapović (2017), p. 13.
- ^ Fortson (2010), §3.2.
- ^ Beekes, §11.
- ^ Kapović (2017), p. 14.
- ^ Fortson (2010), §4.2, §4.20.
- ^ Fortson (2010), pp. 73–74.
- ^ Fortson (2010), p. 102.
- ISBN 978-3-11-052387-4, retrieved 8 March 2023
- ^ Fortson (2010), pp. 102, 105.
- ISBN 81-208-1767-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-1556195044.
- ^ ISBN 0-19-508345-8.
- ISBN 0-415-08201-3
- ^ a b Jay Jasanoff. The Prehistory of the Balto-Slavic Accent. p. 21.
- ^ Fortson (2010), pp. 116f.
- ^ Jay Jasanoff. The Prehistory of the Balto-Slavic Accent. p. 22.
- ^ Kulikov, Leonid; Lavidas, Nikolaos, eds. (2015). "Preface". Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development. John Benjamins.
- ^ a b Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds. (1997). "Proto-Indo-European". Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 463.
- ^ a b Hock, Hans Henrich (2015). "Proto-Indo-European verb-finality: Reconstruction, typology, validation". In Kulikov, Leonid; Lavidas, Nikolaos (eds.). Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development. John Benjamins.
- ISBN 9780292733411.
- ^ Ringe, Donald (2006). Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. Oxford University Press.
- ISBN 0-941694-25-9.
Bibliography
- Anthony, David W.; Ringe, Don (2015). "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives". Annual Review of Linguistics. 1 (1): 199–219. .
- Bomhard, Allan (2019). "The Origins of Proto-Indo-European: The Caucasian Substrate Hypothesis". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 47 (1 & 2, Spring/Summer 2019).
- Clackson, James (18 October 2007). Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65367-1.
- Fortson, Benjamin W. (2010). Indo-European language and culture: an introduction (2nd ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell. OCLC 54529041.
- Kapović, Mate (2017). "Proto-Indo-European phonology". In Kapović, Mate (ed.). The Indo-European Languages (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 13–60. ISBN 978-0-415-73062-4.
- Mallory, J. P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 9780500050521.
- ISBN 9780199296682
- ISBN 3-11-017433-2
- Szemerenyi, Oswald J. L. (13 February 1997). Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-383-01320-7.
- Kümmel, Martin Joachim (2022). "Voiceless high vowels and syncope in older Indo-European" (PDF). Italian Journal of Linguistics. 32 (1): 175–190. .
- Kümmel, Martin Joachim. "Uvular Stops or a Glottal Fricative? Theory and Data in Recent Reconstructions of PIE "Laryngeals"" (PDF). Seminar für Indogermanistik.
- Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias, eds. (25 September 2017), Volume 1 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics, De Gruyter Mouton, ISBN 978-3-11-026128-8, retrieved 19 November 2023
- Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias, eds. (23 October 2017), "Volume 2 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook", Volume 2 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics, De Gruyter Mouton, ISBN 978-3-11-052387-4, retrieved 19 November 2023
- Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias, eds. (11 June 2018), Volume 3 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics, De Gruyter Mouton, ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1, retrieved 19 November 2023
External links
- At the University of Texas Linguistic Research Center: List of online books Archived 28 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Indo-European Lexicon
- Proto-Indo-European Lexicon at the University of Helsinki, Department of Modern Languages, Department of World Cultures, Indo-European Studies
- "Wheel and chariot in early IE: What exactly can we conclude from the linguistic data?" (PDF). Martin Joachim Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics, University of Jena.
- Indo-European Grammar, Syntax & Etymology Dictionary
- Indo-European Lexical Cognacy Database Archived 7 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online, an online collection of video lectures on Ancient Indo-European languages