Indo-Iranians
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Indo-Iranian peoples, also known as Indo-Iranic peoples by scholars,
Nomenclature
The term
History
Origin
The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the descendants of the
Based on its use by Indo-Aryans in Mitanni and Vedic India, its prior absence in the Near East and Harappan India, and its 19th–20th century BC attestation at the Andronovo site of Sintashta, Kuzmina (1994) argues that the chariot corroborates the identification of Andronovo as Indo-Iranian.[note 1] Anthony & Vinogradov (1995) dated a chariot burial at Krivoye Lake to about 2000 BC, and a Bactria-Margiana burial that also contains a foal has recently been found, indicating further links with the steppes.[16]
Historical linguists broadly estimate that a continuum of Indo-Iranian languages probably began to diverge by 2000 BC,
Expansion
First wave – Indo-Aryans
Two-wave models of Indo-Iranian expansion have been proposed by Burrow (1973) The Mitanni, a people known in eastern The Mitanni of Anatolia
- a Indo-European Anatolian peoplewho spoke a non Indo-Iranian language;
- the names of Mitanni rulers and;
- the names of gods invoked by these rulers in treaties.
In particular, Kikkuli's text includes words such as aika "one" (i.e. a cognate of the Indo-Aryan eka), tera "three" (tri), panza "five" (pancha), satta "seven", (sapta), na "nine" (nava), and vartana "turn around", in the context of a horse race (Indo-Aryan vartana). In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the
Indian subcontinent – Vedic culture
The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into the Indian subcontinent is that this first wave went over the Hindu Kush, either into the headwaters of the
In eastern Afghanistan and some western regions of Pakistan, Indo-Aryan languages were eventually replaced by Eastern Iranian languages. Most Indo-Aryan languages, however, were and still are prominent in the rest of the Indian subcontinent. Today, Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Fiji, Suriname and the Maldives.
Second wave – Iranians
The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave.[17]: 42–43
The first Iranians to reach the
The
In
Archaeology
Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian expansion include:
- Europe
- Poltavka culture (2500–2100 BC)
- Abashevo culture (2300–1850 BC)
- Srubna culture(1850–1450 BC)
- Central Asia
- Sintashta-Petrovka-Arkaim (2050–1750 BC)
- Andronovohorizon (2000–1450 BC)
- Alakul (2100–1400 BC)
- Fedorovo (1400–1200 BC)
- Alekseyevka (1200–1000 BC)
- Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex(2200–1700 BC)
- Yaz culture (1500–1100 BC)
- Indian subcontinent
- Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000–1500 BC)
- Cemetery H culture (1900–1300 BC)
- Swat culture(1400–800 BC)
- Painted Gray Ware culture(1200–600 BC)
- Iranian Plateau
- Early West Iranian Grey Ware (1500–1000 BC)
- Late West Iranian Buff Ware (900–700 BC)
Parpola (1999) suggests the following identifications:
Date range | Archaeological culture | Identification suggested by Parpola |
---|---|---|
2800–2000 BC | late Catacomb and Poltavka cultures | late PIE to Proto–Indo-Iranian |
2000–1800 BC | Srubna and Abashevo cultures | Proto-Iranian |
2000–1800 BC | Petrovka-Sintashta | Proto–Indo-Aryan |
1900–1700 BC | BMAC | "Proto-Dasa" Indo-Aryans establishing themselves in the existing BMAC settlements, defeated by "Proto-Rigvedic" Indo-Aryans around 1700 |
1900–1400 BC | Cemetery H | Indian Dasa |
1800–1000 BC | Alakul-Fedorovo | Indo-Aryan, including "Proto–Sauma-Aryan" practicing the Soma cult |
1700–1400 BC | early Swat culture | Proto-Rigvedic |
1700–1500 BC | late BMAC | "Proto–Sauma-Dasa", assimilation of Proto-Dasa and Proto–Sauma-Aryan |
1500–1000 BC | Early West Iranian Grey Ware | Mitanni-Aryan (offshoot of "Proto–Sauma-Dasa") |
1400–800 BC | late Swat culture and Punjab, Painted Grey Ware | late Rigvedic |
1400–1100 BC | Yaz II-III, Seistan | Proto-Avestan |
1100–1000 BC | Gurgan Buff Ware, Late West Iranian Buff Ware | Proto-Persian, Proto-Median |
1000–400 BC | Iron Age cultures of Xinjiang | Proto-Saka |
Language
The
Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z, among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.
The regions where
Religion
Despite the introduction of later
The pre-Islamic religion of the
Most Indo-Iranians today follow
Development
Some beliefs developed in different ways as cultures separated and evolved. For example, the word '
The
Cognate terms
The following is a list of cognate terms that may be gleaned from comparative linguistic analysis of the Rigveda and Avesta. Both collections are from the period after the proposed date of separation (c. 2nd millennium BC) of the Proto-Indo-Iranians into their respective Indic and Iranian branches.[27][38][39]
Vedic Sanskrit | Avestan | Common meaning |
---|---|---|
āp | āp | "water," āpas "the Waters"[39] |
Apam Napat, Apām Napāt | Apām Napāt |
the "water's offspring"[39] |
aryaman | airyaman | "Arya-hood" (lit:** "member of Arya community")[39] |
Asura Mahata/Medha (असुर महत/मेधा) | Ahura Mazda | "The Supreme Lord, Lord of Wisdom"[40][41] |
rta |
asha/arta | "active truth", extending to "order" and "righteousness"[39][38] |
atharvan | āθrauuan, aθaurun Atar | "priest"[38] |
ahi | azhi, (aži) | "dragon, snake", "serpent"[39] |
daiva, deva | daeva, (daēuua) | a class of divinities |
manu | manu | "man"[39] |
mitra |
mithra, miθra | "oath, covenant"[39][38] |
asura | ahura | another class of spirits[39][38] |
sarvatat | Hauruuatāt | "intactness", "perfection"[42][43] |
Sarasvatī (Ārdrāvī śūrā anāhitā, आर्द्रावी शूरा अनाहिता) | Haraxvati/Haraxvaitī ( Ārəduuī Sūrā Anāhitā ) |
a controversial (generally considered mythological) river, a river goddess[44][45] |
sauma, soma | haoma | a plant, deified[39][38] |
svar | hvar, xvar | the Sun, also cognate to Greek helios, Latin sol, Engl. Sun[42] |
Tapati | tapaiti | Possible fire/solar goddess; see Scythian theonym). Cognate with Latin tepeo and several other terms.[42]
|
Vrtra -/Vr̥tragʰná/Vritraban |
verethra, vərəθra (cf. Verethragna, Vərəθraγna) | "obstacle"[39][38] |
Yama | Yima | son of the solar deity Vivasvant/Vīuuahuuant[39] |
yajña | yasna, object: yazata | "worship, sacrifice, oblation"[39][38] |
Gandharva | Gandarewa | "heavenly beings"[39] |
Nasatya |
Nanghaithya | "twin Vedic gods associated with the dawn, medicine, and sciences"[39] |
Amarattya | Ameretat | "immortality"[39] |
Póṣa | Apaosha | "demon of drought"[39] |
Ashman | Asman | "sky, highest heaven"[42] |
Angira Manyu |
Angra Mainyu | "destructive/evil spirit, spirit, temper, ardour, passion, anger, teacher of divine knowledge"[39] |
Manyu | Maniyu | "anger, wrath"[39] |
Sarva | Sarva | "Rudra, Vedic god of wind, Shiva"[42] |
Madhu | Madu | "honey"[39] |
Bhuta |
Buiti | "ghost"[39] |
Mantra | Manthra | "sacred spell"[39] |
Aramati | Armaiti | "piety" |
Amrita | Amesha | "nectar of immortality"[39] |
Amrita Spanda (अमृत स्पन्द) | Amesha Spenta | "holy nectar of immortality" |
Sumati | Humata | "good thought"[42][39] |
Sukta | Hukhta | "good word"[39] |
Narasamsa | Nairyosangha | "praised man"[39] |
Vayu | Vaiiu | "wind"[39] |
Vajra | Vazra | "bolt"[39] |
Ushas | Ushah | "dawn"[39] |
Ahuti | azuiti | "offering"[39] |
púraṁdhi | purendi[39] | |
bhaga | baga | "lord, patron, wealth, prosperity, sharer/distributor of good fortune"[39] |
Usij | Usij | "priest"[39] |
trita | thrita | "the third"[39] |
Mas | Mah | "moon, month"[39] |
Vivasvant | Vivanhvant | "lighting up, matutinal"[39] |
Druh | Druj | "Evil spirit"[39] |
Ahi Dasaka | Azhi Dahaka | "biting serpent"[46] |
Genetics
Out of 10 human male remains assigned to the Andronovo horizon from the Krasnoyarsk region, 9 possessed the
A 2004 study also established that during the Bronze Age/Iron Age period, the majority of the population of Kazakhstan (part of the Andronovo culture during the Bronze Age), was of west Eurasian maternal lineages (with mtDNA haplogroups such as U, H, HV, T, I and W), and that prior to the 13th–7th century BC, all Kazakh samples belonged to European lineages.[53]
A 2022 study found that modern individuals from Southern Central Asia, especially Tajiks and Yaghnobis, display strong genetic continuity towards Iron Age Indo-Iranians, and were only marginally affected by outside geneflow, while modern Turkic peoples derive significant amounts of ancestry from a 'Baikal hunter-gatherer' source (mean average ~50%), with the remainder being ancestry maximized in Tajik people. Historical Indo-Iranians showed high genetic affinity towards European hunter-gatherers and Iranian Neolithic farmers.[54]
See also
- Proto-Indo-Iranian language
- Proto-Dravidian language
- Satemization
- Ariana
- Āryāvarta
- Dravidian peoples
- Aryanization
- Indo-Aryan migrations
Notes
- ^ Klejn (1974), as cited in Bryant 2001:206, acknowledges the Iranian identification of the Andronovo culture, but finds the Andronovo culture too late[clarification needed] for an Indo-Iranian identification, giving a later date for the start of the Andronovo culture "in the 16th or 17th century BC, whereas the Aryans appeared in the Near East not later than the 15th to 16th century BC.[13] Klejn (1974, p.58) further argues that "these [latter] regions contain nothing reminiscent of Timber-Frame Andronovo materials."[13] Brentjes (1981) also gives a later dating for the Andronovo culture.[14] Bryant further refers to Lyonnet (1993) and Francfort (1989), who point to the absence of archaeological remains of the Andronovans south of the Hindu Kush.[14] Bosch-Gimpera (1973) and Hiebert (1998) argue that there also no Andronovo remains in Iran,[14] but Hiebert "agrees that the expansion of the BMAC people to the Iranian plateau and the Indus Valley borderlands at the beginning of the second millennium BC is 'the best candidate for an archaeological correlate of the introduction of Indo-Iranian speakers to Iran and South Asia' (Hiebert 1995:192)".[15] Sarianidi states that the Andronovo tribes "penetrated to a minimum extent".[14]
- ).
References
Citations
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- ^ Motti, Victor Vahidi. "Richard Slaughter: The master interpreter of alternative planetary futures." Futures 132 (2021): 102796.
- ^ Dwyer, Arienne M. "The texture of tongues: Languages and power in China." Nationalism and ethnoregional identities in China. Routledge, 2013. 68–85.
- ^ The "Aryan" Language, Gherardo Gnoli, Instituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, Roma, 2002.
- ^ . Schmitt, "Aryans" in Encyclopedia Iranica: Excerpt:"The name "Aryan" (OInd. ā́rya-, Ir. *arya- [with short a-], in Old Pers. ariya-, Av. airiia-, etc.) is the self-designation of the peoples of Ancient India and Ancient Iran who spoke Aryan languages, in contrast to the "non-Aryan" peoples of those "Aryan" countries (cf. OInd. an-ā́rya-, Av. an-airiia-, etc.), and lives on in ethnic names like Alan (Lat. Alani, NPers. īrān, Oss. Ir and Iron.". Also accessed online: [1] in May, 2010
- ^ Wiesehofer, Joseph: Ancient Persia. New York: 1996. I.B. Tauris. Recommends the use by scholars of the term Aryan to describe the Eastern, not the Western, branch of the Indo-European peoples (see "Aryan" in index)
- Vedic Hindus, i.e., only to the eastern branch of the Indo-European peoples, whose western branch populated Europe."
- ISBN 978-952-5667-34-9. Retrieved 12 November 2013.
- ^ Häkkinen, Jaakko (23 September 2012). "Problems in the method and interpretations of the computational phylogenetics based on linguistic data – An example of wishful thinking: Bouckaert et al. 2012" (PDF). Jaakko Häkkisen puolikuiva alkuperäsivusto. Jaakko Häkkinen. Retrieved 12 November 2013.
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- ISBN 978-1-009-26175-3. Retrieved 2023-11-16.
- ^ Anthony 2007, p. 49.
- ^ a b Bryant 2001, p. 206.
- ^ a b c d Bryant 2001, p. 207.
- ^ Parpola 2015, p. 76.
- ^ Anthony & Vinogradov (1995); Kuzmina (1994), Klejn (1974), and Brentjes (1981), as cited in Bryant (2001:206)
- ^ a b Mallory 1989
- ^ Christopher I. Beckwith (2009), Empires of the Silk Road, Oxford University Press, p.30
- ^ Burrow 1973.
- ^ a b Mallory & Mair 2000
- ^ Rigveda – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
- ^ Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450. Osprey Publishing. p. 39.
(..) Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations.
- ^ Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 523.
(..) In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations.
- ^ Atkinson, Dorothy; et al. (1977). Women in Russia. Stanford University Press. p. 3.
(..) Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the south of Russia for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians.
- ^ Slovene Studies. Vol. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36.
(..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.
- ISBN 978-99930-808-0-0.
- ^ a b c Gnoli, Gherardo (March 29, 2012). "Indo-Iranian Religion". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved July 10, 2018.
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- ISBN 978-1-56656-240-9.
- ^ Strand, Richard F. (31 December 2005). "Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: Peoples and Languages of Nuristan". nuristan.info. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
- ^ "The Kalash: Pakistan's last animist tribe". Atalayar. 29 March 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-56952-140-3.
The Kalash (which means 'black' because of the black garments they wear) are an animist tribe who live in a region sometimes called Kafiristan.
- ^ Witzel, Michael (2012). The Origin of the World's Mythologies.
- ^ Witzel, Michael (2005). Vala and Iwato: The Myth of the Hidden Sun in India, Japan, and beyond (PDF).
- ^ Michael Witzel. "Kalash Religion" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 14 March 2022 – via HUIT.
- ^ a b "THE DAEVAS IN ZOROASTRIAN SCRIPTURE" (PDF). University of Missouri System. Retrieved 2023-12-24.
- ^ "Saraswati Palaeochannels". bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
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- ^ The Sacred Books of the East: The Zend-Avesta, pt. I. Clarendon Press. 1880. p. LVIII. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
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- PMID 35031610."the qpAdm modelling shows that at least 90% of the ancestry of current Indo-Iranian ancestry is modelized as inherited from Iron Age individuals from southern Central Asia with an affinity with BMAC. Consequently, Indo-Iranians present a strong genetic continuity in the region since the Iron Age with anecdotic admixture with BHG ancestry related individuals, and, for the Tajiks, with South Asian ancestry related populations possibly after Iron Age."
Sources
- Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
- Anthony, David W.; Vinogradov, Nikolai B. (1995). "Birth of the Chariot". Archaeology. 48 (2): 36–41. JSTOR 41771098.
- ISBN 978-0-19-513777-4
- Burrow, T. (1973), "The Proto-Indoaryans", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 105 (2): 123–140, S2CID 162454265
- JSTOR 606224.
- Jones-Bley, K.; Zdanovich, D. G. (eds.), Complex Societies of Central Eurasia from the 3rd to the 1st Millennium BC, 2 vols, JIES Monograph Series Nos. 45, 46, Washington D.C. (2002), ISBN 0-941694-86-0.
- Kuz'mina, Elena Efimovna (1994), Откуда пришли индоарии? (Whence came the Indo-Aryans), Moscow: Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences).
- Kuz'mina, Elena Efimovna (2007), Mallory, James Patrick (ed.), The Origin of the Indo-Iranians, Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, Leiden: Brill
- Mallory, J.P.(1989), In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth, London: Thames & Hudson.
- Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997), "Indo-Iranian Languages", Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Fitzroy Dearborn.
- Mallory, J. P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000), The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest People from the West, London: Thames & Hudson.
- Parpola, Asko (1999), "The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European", in Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.), Archaeology and Language, vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts, London and New York: Routledge.
- Parpola, Asko (2015). The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-022692-3.
- ISBN 0-500-02071-X
- Witzel, Michael (2000), "The Home of the Aryans"(PDF), in Hintze, A.; Tichy, E. (eds.), Anusantatyai. Fs. für Johanna Narten zum 70. Geburtstag, Dettelbach: J.H. Roell, pp. 283–338.
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Bibliography
- Guarino-Vignon, P., Marchi, N., Bendezu-Sarmiento, J. et al. Genetic continuity of Indo-Iranian speakers since the Iron Age in southern Central Asia. Sci Rep 12, 733 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-04144-4
- Vasil'ev, I. B., P. F. Kuznetsov, and A. P. Semenova. "Potapovo Burial Ground of the Indo-Iranic Tribes on the Volga" (1994).
External links
- The Origin of the Pre-Imperial Iranian People by Oric Basirov (2001)
- The Origin of the Indo-Iranians Elena E. Kuz'mina. Edited by J.P. Mallory (2007)