Prototaxites

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Prototaxites
Temporal range:
Late Silurian–Famennian
Possible record from Darriwilian
Branching apex of P. loganii, "Schunnemunk tree"
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Stem group: Ascomycota
Family: †Prototaxitaceae
Hueber
Genus: †Prototaxites
Dawson 1859
Type species
Prototaxites loganii
Dawson, 1859
Species
  • P. caledonicus (Lang 1926) Schmidt & Teichmüller 1954
  • P. clevelandensis Chitaley 1992b
  • P. forfarensis (Kidston 1897) Pia
  • P. hicksii (Etheridge 1881) Dawson 1881
  • P. honeggeri Retallack 2019
  • P. loganii Dawson, 1859
  • P. ortoni (Penhallow 1896)
  • P. psygmophylloides Kräusel & Weyland 1930 ex Kräusel & Weyland 1931
  • P. saharianum (Chiarugi 1934)
  • P. southworthii Arnold, 1952
  • P. storriei (Barber 1892)
  • P. taiti (Kidston & Lang 1921)
Synonyms

Prototaxites

Late Silurian until the Late Devonian periods.[1][2] Prototaxites formed large trunk-like structures up to 1 metre (3 ft) wide, reaching 8 metres (26 ft) in length,[3]
made up of interwoven tubes around 50 micrometres (0.0020 in) in diameter, making it by far the largest land-dwelling organism of its time.

The taxonomy of Prototaxites has long been the subject of debate. Currently, it is widely considered a fungus, but the debate is ongoing.

lichenised autotroph.[1]

Morphology

Dawson's 1888 reconstruction of a conifer-like Prototaxites
The microstructure of Prototaxites under a light microscope
P. milwaukeensis from Wisconsin
Scanning electron microscope view of spherical phycobiont and elongate mycobiont of P. loganii

With a diameter of up to 1 metre (3 ft 3 in), and a height reaching 8.8 metres (29 ft), Prototaxites fossils are remnants of by far the largest organism discovered from the period of its existence. Viewed from afar, the fossils take the form of tree-trunks, spreading slightly near their base in a fashion that suggests a connection to unpreserved root-like structures.

red algae and fungi.[7]

The similarity of these tubes to structures in the early plant Nematothallus has led to suggestions that the latter may represent leaves of Prototaxites. Unfortunately for this hypothesis, the two have never been found in connection, although this may be a consequence of their detachment after the organisms' death.[8]

History of research

First collected in 1843,

rules of botanical nomenclature
mean that the name "Prototaxites", however inappropriate in meaning, remains in use today.

Despite the overwhelming evidence that the organism grew on land,

alga was challenged just the once, in 1919, when Church suggested that Carruthers had been too quick to rule out the possibility of the fungi.[18] The lack of any characters diagnostic of any extant group made the presentation of a firm hypothesis difficult;[6] the fossil remained an enigmatic mystery and subject of debate. It was not until 2001, after 20 years of research, that Francis Hueber, of Washington's National Museum of Natural History, published a long-awaited paper which attempted to put Prototaxites in its place. The paper deduced, based on its morphology, that Prototaxites was a fungus.[6]

This idea was received with disbelief, denial and strong scepticism, but further evidence is emerging to support it.

rhizomorphs, and could support the possibility of the organism transporting nutrients large distances to support its above-ground body.[20]

Other recent research has suggested that Prototaxites represents a rolled-up bundle of liverworts,[21] but this interpretation has substantial difficulties.[22]

A similar genus, Nematasketum, also consists of banded and branching tubes in axial bundles; this seems to be a fungus.[23]

In 2021, Gregory Retallack described new species Prototaxites honeggeri from the Darriwilian (Middle Ordovician) age Douglas Lake Member of the Lenoir Limestone, at Douglas Dam, Tennessee, which makes the earliest appearance of this genus.[24] While Ordovician origin of this genus is mentioned by some study,[2] paleobotanist Dianne Edwards referred this study and commented "When diagnostic features are absent, such fragmentary organic materials can be misinterpreted, leading to implausible attributions".[25] Nelson and Boyce (2022) referred this study by Retallack, but considered appearance of genus is Late Silurian.[1]

A 2022 paper suggested that Prototaxites was a fungal

rhizomorph that grew on its side and likely at least partially underground, as opposed to the traditional view that it grew upright.[2]

Ecological context

Prototaxites would have been the tallest living organism in its day by far. In comparison, the plant Cooksonia only reached 6 centimetres (2.4 in) and itself towered over the "moss forests". Invertebrates were the only other land-dwelling multi-cellular life. Prototaxites became extinct as vascular plants rose to prominence.[4] The organism could have used its tall columnar structure for spore dispersal. Alternatively, if Prototaxites contained photosynthetic structures, the height would have increased light capture.[4] The University of Chicago research team has it reconstructed as a branchless, columnar structure.[26] The presence of bio-molecules often associated with algae may suggest that the organism was covered by symbiotic (or parasitic) algae (making it in essence a huge lichen), or even that it was an alga itself.[4][27][28] However, the variability in the ratios of δ13C between specimens of Prototaxites suggest that it was heterotrophic.[1]

Prototaxites mycelia (strands) have been fossilised invading the tissue of vascular plants;[6] in turn, there is evidence of animals inhabiting Prototaxites: mazes of tubes have been found within some specimens, with the fungus re-growing into the voids, leading to speculation that the organisms' extinction may have been caused by such activity;[6] however, evidence of arthropod borings in Prototaxites has been found from the early and late Devonian, suggesting the organism survived the stress of boring for many millions of years.[29] Intriguingly, Prototaxites was bored long before plants developed a structurally equivalent woody stem, and it is possible that the borers transferred to plants when these evolved.[29]

References

  1. ^
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  2. ^
    PMID 36511419
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  3. ^
    doi:10.1130/G23384A.1
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  4. ^
    doi:10.1017/S0953756202226313
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  5. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.01.038
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  6. ^
    doi:10.1016/S0034-6667(01)00058-6
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  7. S2CID 31706785
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  8. ^ Jonker, F.P. (1979). "Prototaxites in the Lower Devonian". Palaeontographica B: 39–56.
  9. ^ A fossil specimen collected by Charles Darwin's friend Joseph Dalton Hooker, was mislaid for 163 years at the British Geological Survey offices in London ("Scientists find lost Darwin fossils in gloomy corner of British Geological Survey", Christian Science Monitor, 17 January 2012; identifying Hooker as "John Hooker").
  10. ^ Dawson, J.W. (1856). "Remarks on a specimen of fossil wood from the Devonian rocks, (Gaspé Sandstones) of Gaspé, Canada East". Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 10, Part II: 174–176.
  11. ^ Dawson, J.W. (1859). "On the fossil plants from the Devonian rocks of Canada". The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London. 15: 477–488. On p. 485, Dawson gave this "plant" its taxonomic name Prototaxites Logani.
  12. ^ Carruthers, Wm. (October 1872). "On the History, Histological Structure, and Affinities of Nematophycus Logani, Carr. (Prototaxites Logani, Dawson), an Alga of Devonian Age". The Monthly Microscopical Journal. 8 (4): 160–172.
  13. ^ The "Taxinaea" (Taxaceae) are the grouping of conifers to which Dawson drew analogy
  14. ^ Almond Miller, Samuel (1877). The American Palaeozoic Fossils: A Catalogue of the Genera and Species, with Names of Authors, Dates, Places of Publication, Groups of Rocks in which Found, and the Etymology and Signification of the Words, and an Introduction Devoted to the Stratigraphical Geology of the Palaeozoic Rocks. author. pp. 35.
  15. ^ Seward, A. C. (Albert Charles) (1898), Fossil plants : a text-book for students of botany and geology, University Press ; New York : Macmillan, p. 192, retrieved 13 February 2016
  16. ISBN 9781108016001
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  17. ISBN 9781465606853
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  18. ^ Church, A.H. (1919). Botanical Memoirs No. 3: Thallassiophyta and the Subaerial Transmigrant. London, England: Oxford University Press. p. 49.
  19. ^ Debra Lindsay (2005) Prototaxites Dawson, 1859 or Nematophycus Carruthers, 1872: Geologists V. Botanists in the Formative Period of the Science of Paleobotany. Earth Sciences History: 2005, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 35-61.
  20. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.01.038
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  21. PMID 21622387.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
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  22. PMID 21616859
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  23. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2011.01195.x
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  24. ^ Retallack, G.J. (2019). "Ordovician land plants and fungi from Douglas Dam, Tennessee". The Palaeobotanist. 68: 1–33.
  25. ISSN 0028-646X
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  26. ^ Prehistoric mystery organism verified as giant fungus Press release from University of Chicago, April 23, 2007.
  27. S2CID 21794174
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  28. S2CID 46073056
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  29. ^
    doi:10.1111/j.1744-7917.2007.00152.x
    .

External links

updated: https://www.ted.com/talks/paul_stamets_6_ways_mushrooms_can_save_the_world

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