Province of New York
Province of New York | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1664–1783 | |||||||||||
Status |
| ||||||||||
Capital | George III (last) | ||||||||||
Royal Governor | |||||||||||
• 1664–1668 | Richard Nicolls (first) | ||||||||||
• 1783 | Andrew Elliot (last) | ||||||||||
Legislature | Council (1664–1686, 1689–1775) Provincial Congress (1775-1777) | ||||||||||
• Upper house | New York Executive Council | ||||||||||
• Lower house | New York General Assembly | ||||||||||
History | |||||||||||
• Capture of New Amsterdam | 28 August 1664 | ||||||||||
4 July 1776 | |||||||||||
3 September 1783 | |||||||||||
Currency | New York pound | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
Today part of |
The Province of New York was a
In 1664, the English under
In the late 18th century, colonists in New York rebelled along with the other Thirteen Colonies, and supported the American Revolutionary War that led to independence and the founding of the United States. British claims in New York were ended by the Treaty of Paris of 1783, with New York establishing its independence from the crown. The final evacuation of New York City by the British Army was followed by the return of General George Washington's Continental Army on November 25, 1783, in a grand parade and celebration.
Geography
This British crown colony was established upon the former Iroquois nation and then Dutch colony of
History
New Amsterdam and Dutch Rule (1617-1664)
In 1617, officials of the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland created a settlement at present-day Albany, and in 1624 founded New Amsterdam, on Manhattan Island. The Dutch colony included claims to an area comprising all of the present U.S. states of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Vermont, along with inland portions of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Maine in addition to eastern Pennsylvania.
Proprietary government (1664–1685)
New Amsterdam surrendered to Colonel Richard Nicholls on August 27, 1664; he renamed it New York. On September 24 Sir George Carteret accepted the capitulation of the garrison at Fort Orange, which he called Albany, after another of the Duke of York's titles.[2] The capture was confirmed by the Treaty of Breda in July 1667.
Easing the transition to British rule, the Articles of Capitulation guaranteed certain rights to the Dutch; among these were: liberty of conscience in divine worship and church discipline, the continuation of their own customs concerning inheritances, and the application of Dutch law to bargains and contracts made prior to the capitulation.[3]
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2019) |
In 1664,
Also in 1664, the Duke of York gave the part of his new possessions between the
TheThe acquired territory land designations were reassigned by the crown, leaving the territory of the modern State of New York, including the valleys of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers, and future Vermont. The territory of western New York was disputed with the indigenous Iroquois Confederacy, and also disputed between the English and the French from their northern colonial province of New France (modern eastern Canada). The province remained an important military and economic link to Canada throughout its history. Vermont was disputed with the Province of New Hampshire to the east.
The first governor Richard Nicolls was known for writing "The Duke's Laws" which served as the first compilation of English laws in colonial New York.[3] Nicholls returned to England after an administration of three years, much of which was taken up in confirming the ancient Dutch land grants. Francis Lovelace was next appointed Governor and held the position from May 1667 until the return of the Dutch in July 1673.[2] A Dutch fleet recaptured New York and held it until it was traded to the English by the Treaty of Westminster. A second grant was obtained by the Duke of York in July 1674 to perfect his title.
Upon conclusion of the peace in 1674, the Duke of York appointed Sir Edmund Andros as Governor of his territories in America.[2] Governor Edmund Andros in 1674 said "permit all persons of what religion soever, quietly to inhabit within the precincts of your jurisdiction"[9] Nonetheless, he made the Quakers of West Jersey pay toll on the Delaware, but they applied to England and were redressed.[10] He was followed by Colonel Thomas Dongan in 1682. Dongan was empowered, on the advice of William Penn, to summon "...a general assembly of all the freeholders, by such persons they should choose to represent them to consult with you and said council what laws are fit and necessary to be made..."[3]
A colonial Assembly was created in October 1683. New York was the last of the English colonies to have an
An act of the assembly in 1683 naturalized all those of foreign nations then in the colony professing Christianity. To encourage immigration, it also provided that foreigners professing Christianity may, after their arrival, be naturalized if they took the oath of allegiance as required.[citation needed]
The Duke's Laws established a non-denominational state church.[citation needed]
The British replaced the Dutch in their alliance with the Iroquois against New France, with an agreement called the Covenant Chain.
The colony was one of the Middle Colonies, and ruled at first directly from England. When the Duke of York ascended to the throne of England as James II in 1685, the province became a royal colony.
Royal province (1686–1775)
In 1664, after the Dutch ceded
In May 1688, the Province of New York was made part of the
New York's charter was re-enacted in 1691 and was the constitution of the province until the creation of the State of New York.
The first newspaper to appear in New York was the New-York Gazette, started November 8, 1725, by William Bradford. It was printed on a single sheet, published weekly.[13]
During Queen Anne's War with France from 1702 to 1713, the province had little involvement with the military operations, but benefited from being a supplier to the British fleet. New York militia participated in two abortive attacks on Quebec in 1709 and 1711.
Dutch
When the
With very few new arrivals, the result was an increasingly traditional system cut off from the forces for change. The folk maintained their popular culture, revolving around their language and their
Germans
Nearly 2,800
Black slaves
The first slaves were introduced to the colonies by the Dutch, and thereafter by the British, largely bought from African tribal chiefs who exploited prisoners taken during the numerous tribal wars of that period. In the 1690s, New York was the largest importer of the colonies of slaves and a supply port for pirates.
The black population became a major element in New York City, and on large upstate farms.[20] With its shipping and trades, New York had use for skilled African labor as artisans and domestic servants. New York sold these slaves using slave markets, giving slaves to the highest bidder at an auction.
Two notable
The numbers of slaves imported to New York increased dramatically from the 1720s through 1740s. By the 17th century, they established the African burial ground in Lower Manhattan, which was used through 1812. It was discovered nearly two centuries later during excavation before the construction of the Ted Weiss Federal Building at 290 Broadway. Historians estimated 15,000–20,000 Africans and African Americans had been buried in the approximately 8 acres surrounding there. Because of the extraordinary find, the government commissioned a memorial at the site, where the National Park Service has an interpretive center. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark and National Monument. Excavation and study of the remains has been described as the "most important historic urban archaeological project undertaken in the United States."[22]
King George's War
This province, as a British colony, fought against the French during King George's War. The assembly was determined to control expenditures for this war and only weak support was given. When the call came for New York to help raise an expeditionary force against Louisburg, the New York assembly refused to raise troops and only appropriated a token £3,000.[23] The assembly was opposed to a significant war effort because it would interrupt trade with Quebec and would result in higher taxes. The French raid on Saratoga in 1745 destroyed that settlement, killing and capturing more than one hundred people. After this attack the assembly was more generous and raised 1,600 men and £40,000.[24]
French and Indian War
Upstate New York was the scene of fighting during the French and Indian War, with British and French forces contesting control of Lake Champlain in association with Native American allies. Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet, and other agents in upstate New York brought about the participation of the Iroquois. The French and their Indian allies laid siege to Fort William Henry at the southern end of Lake George in 1757. The British forces surrendered to the French, but many prisoners were then massacred by the Indians. Some prisoners had smallpox, and when Indians took the scalps to their home villages, they spread a disease that killed large numbers.[25] In the end the British won the war and took over all of Canada, thereby ending French-sponsored Indian attacks.
One of the largest impressment operations occurred in New York in the spring of 1757 when three thousand British troops cordoned off the city and impressed nearly eight hundred persons they found in taverns and other gathering places of sailors.[26] New York was the centre for privateering. Forty New York ships were commissioned as privateers in 1756 and in the spring of 1757 it was estimated the value of French prizes brought into New York was two hundred thousand pounds. By 1759, the seas had been cleaned of French vessels and the privateers were diverted into trading with the enemy. The ending of the war caused a severe recession in New York.
Political parties
During the middle years of the 18th century, politics in New York revolved around the rivalry of two great families, the Livingstons and the De Lanceys. Both of these families had amassed considerable fortunes. New York City had an inordinate influence on New York province politics because several of the assembly members lived in New York City rather than in their district. In the 1752 election, De Lanceys' relatives and close friends controlled 12 of the 27 seats in the assembly. The De Lanceys lost control of the assembly in the election of 1761.
Governor Cadwallader Colden tried to organize a popular party to oppose the great families, thus earning the hatred of the city elite of both parties. The Livingstons looked to the imperial ties as a means of controlling the influence of James De Lancey. The De Lanceys regarded imperial ties to be a tool for personal advantage.[28]
Stamp Act
Parliament passed the Stamp Act 1765 to raise money from the colonies. New York had previously passed its own stamp act from 1756 to 1760 to raise money for the French and Indian war. The extraordinary response to the Stamp Act can only be explained by the build-up of antagonisms on local issues.[29] New York was experiencing a severe recession from the effects of the end of the French and Indian war. The colonies were experiencing the effects of a very tight monetary policy caused by the trade deficit with Britain, a fiscal crisis in Britain restricting credit, and the Currency Act, which prevented the issuing of paper currency to provide liquidity.[30]
From the outset, New York led the protests in the colonies. Both New York political factions opposed the Stamp Act of 1765. In October, at what became Federal Hall in New York, representatives of several colonies met in the Stamp Act Congress to discuss their response. The New York assembly petitioned the British House of Commons on December 11, 1765, for the Americans' right of self taxation. In August, the intimidation and beating of stamp agents was widely reported. The New York stamp commissioner resigned his job.
The act went into effect on November 1. The day before, James De Lancey organized a meeting at Burns Tavern of New York merchants, where they agreed to boycott all British imports until the Stamp Act was repealed. A leading moderate group opposing the Stamp Act were the local Sons of Liberty headed by Isaac Sears, John Lamb and Alexander McDougall. Historian Gary B. Nash wrote of what was called the "General Terror of November 1–4":[31]
But New York's plebeian element was not yet satisfied. Going beyond the respectable leaders of the Sons of Liberty, the lower orders rampaged through the town for four days. Some two thousand strong, they threatened the homes of suspected sympathizers of British policy, attacked the house of the famously wealthy governor Cadwallader Colden, paraded his effigy around town, and built a monstrous bonfire in the Bowling Green into which the shouting crowd hurled the governor's luxurious two sleighs and horse-drawn coach.[32]
Historian Fred Anderson contrasted the mob actions in New York with those in Boston. In Boston, after the initial unrest, local leaders such as the Loyal Nine (a precursor to the Sons of Liberty) were able to take control of the mob. In New York, however, the "mob was largely made up of seamen, most of whom lacked deep community ties and felt little need to submit to the authority of the city's shorebound radical leaders." The New York Sons of Liberty did not take control of the opposition until after November 1.[33]
On November 1, the crowd destroyed a warehouse and the house of Thomas James, commander at Fort George. A few days later the stamps stored at Fort George were surrendered to the mob. Nash notes that, "whether the Sons of Liberty could control the mariners, lower artisans, and laborers remained in doubt," and "they came to fear the awful power of the assembled lower-class artisans and their maritime compatriots."[31]
On January 7, 1766, the merchant ship Polly carrying stamps for Connecticut was boarded in New York Harbor and the stamps destroyed. Up to the end of 1765 the Stamp Act disturbances had largely been confined to New York City, but in January the Sons of Liberty also stopped the distribution of stamps in Albany.
In May 1766, when news arrived of the repeal of the Stamp Act the Sons of Liberty celebrated by the erection of a
In 1766, widespread tenant uprisings occurred in the countryside north of New York City centered on the Livingston estates. They marched on New York expecting the Sons of Liberty to support them. Instead, the Sons of Liberty blocked the roads and the leader of the tenants was convicted of treason.[original research?]
Quartering Act
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2018) |
In the last years of the
However, the tenant riots of 1766 showed the need for a police force in the colony. The Livingston-controlled New York assembly passed a quartering bill in 1766 to provide barracks and provisions in New York City and Albany which satisfied most, but not all of the requirements of the Quartering Act. London suspended the assembly for failure to comply fully, and Governor Moore dissolved the House of Assembly, February 6, 1768. The next month New Yorkers went to the polls for a new assembly. In this election, with the Sons of Liberty support, the De Lancey faction gained seats, but not enough for a majority.[34]
Townshend Acts
In 1768, a letter issued by the Massachusetts assembly called for the universal boycott of British imports in opposition to the Townshend Acts. In October, the merchants of New York agreed on the condition that the merchants of Boston and Philadelphia also agreed.[citation needed] In December, the assembly passed a resolution which stated the colonies were entitled to self-taxation. Governor Moore declared the resolution repugnant to the laws of England and dissolved the assembly. The De Lancey faction, again with Sons of Liberty support, won a majority in the assembly.[35]
In the spring of 1769, New York was in a depression from the recall of paper boycott and the British boycott.[citation needed] By the Currency Act New York was required to recall all paper money. London allowed the issuance of additional paper money, but the attached conditions were unsatisfactory.[why?] While New York was boycotting British imports, other colonies including Boston and Philadelphia were not. The De Lanceys tried to reach a compromise by passing a bill which allowed for the issuing of paper currency, of which half was for provisioning of the troops. Alexander McDougall, signed a 'Son of Liberty', issued a broadside entitled To the Betrayed Inhabitants of the City and Colony of New York which was an excellent piece of political propaganda denouncing the De Lanceys for betraying the liberties of the people by acknowledging the British power of taxation.[original research?] The Sons of Liberty switched their allegiance from the De Lanceys to the Livingstons.[citation needed] Alexander McDougall was arrested for libel.[36]
Conflict between the Sons of Liberty and the troops in New York erupted with the
In July 1770, the merchants of New York decided to resume trade with Britain when news arrived of Parliament's plan to repeal the Townshend Duties and to give permission for New York to issue some paper currency. The Sons of Liberty were strongly opposed to the resumption of trade. The merchants twice polled their members and went door to door polling residents of New York and all polls were overwhelming in support of resumption of trade. This was perhaps the first public opinion poll in American history.[38]
Tea Act
New York was peaceful after the repeal of the Townshend Act, but the economy of New York was still in a slump. In May 1773 the Parliament passed the Tea Act cutting the duty on tea and enabling the East India company to sell tea in the colonies cheaper than the smugglers could. This act primarily hurt the New York merchants and smugglers. The Sons of Liberty were the organizers of the opposition and in November 1773 they published Association of the Sons of Liberty of New York in which anyone who assisted in support of the act would be an "enemy to the liberties of America". As a result, the New York East India agents resigned. The New York assembly took no action in regard to the Sons of Liberty assumption of extra-legal powers.[39]
The New York City Sons of Liberty learned of Boston's plan to stop the unloading of any tea and resolved to also follow this policy. Since the Association had not obtained the support they had expected, the Sons of Liberty were afraid that if the tea was landed the population would demand its distribution for retail.[40]
In December, news arrived of the Boston Tea Party strengthened opposition. In April 1774, The boat Nancy arrived in New York harbor for repairs. The captain admitted that he had 18 chests of tea on board and he agreed that he would not attempt to have the tea landed, but the Sons of Liberty boarded the ship regardless and destroyed the tea.
Intolerable Acts
In January 1774, the Assembly created a
In May 1774 news arrived of the
In January and February 1775, of the New York Assembly voted down successive resolutions approving the proceedings of the First Continental Congress and refused to send delegates to the Second Continental Congress. New York was the only colonial assembly which did not approve the proceeds of the First Continental Congress. Opposition to the Congress revolved around the opinion that the provincial houses of assembly were the proper agencies to solicit redress for grievances. In March, the Assembly broke with the rest of the colonies and wrote a petition to London, but London rejected the petition because it contained claims about a lack of authority of the "parent state" to tax colonists, "which made it impossible" to accept. The Assembly last met on April 3, 1775.[42]
Provincial Congress
The revolutionary
In April 1775, the rebels formed the
On October 19, 1775, Governor William Tryon was forced to leave New York for a British warship offshore, ending any appearances of British rule of the colony as the Continental Congress ordered the arrest of anyone endangering the safety of the colony. In April 1776 Tryon officially dissolved the New York assembly.[46]
New York was located in the
The Fourth Provincial Congress convened in
The province was the scene of
Structure of government
The governor of New York was royally appointed. The governor selected his Executive Council which served as the upper house. The governor and king had veto power over the assembly's bills. However, all bills were effective until royal disapproval had occurred which could take up to a year. During King George's War, the governor approved two assembly initiatives; that the colony's revenue be approved annually rather than every five years and that the assembly must approve the purpose of each allocation. Elections to the house of assembly were initially held whenever the governor pleased, but eventually a law was passed requiring an election at least once every seven years. The city of New York was the seat of government and where the New York provincial assembly met.[50]
Between 1692 and 1694 the governor of New York was also the governor of Pennsylvania. From 1698 to 1701 the governor was also the governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. From 1702 to 1738 he was also the governor of New Jersey.
Representation in the assembly in 1683 was six for Long Island, four for New York City, two for Kingston, two for Albany, one for each of
Voters were required to have a £40
David Osborn notes,
The election for an open seat in the New York assembly, held on the Village Green in
New York Weekly Journal carried a lengthy report on the famous election, producing one of the few complete accounts of a colonial election available to historians."[51]
- List of governors
See List of colonial governors of New York
- List of attorneys general[52]
See List of attorneys general of the Province of New York
Counties
The Province of New York was divided into twelve
- Albany County: all of the region that is now northern and western New York. Also claimed the area, later disputed, that is now Vermont. In addition, as there was no fixed western border to the colony (a sea-to-sea grant), Albany County technically extended to the Pacific Ocean. Most of this land, which was Indian land for most of the province's history, has now been ceded to other states and most of the land within New York has been divided into new counties.
- St. Croix River from the Atlantic Ocean to the St. Lawrence River. Ceded to the Province of Massachusetts Bayin 1692.
- Nantucket Islandeast of Long Island. Ceded to Massachusetts in 1692.
- Dutchess County: now Dutchess and Putnam counties.
- Kings County: the current Kings County; Brooklyn.
- New York County: the current New York County; Manhattan.
- Orange County: now Orange and Rockland counties.
- Queens County: now Queens and Nassaucounties.
- Richmond County: the current Richmond County; Staten Island.
- Suffolk County: the current Suffolk County.
- Ulster County: now Ulster and Sullivan counties and part of what is now Delaware and Greene counties.
- Bronxcounties.
On March 24, 1772:
- Herkimer Countyaround Little Falls.
- Charlotte County was formed out of Albany County. It was renamed Washington County in 1784.
Legal profession
The British governors were upper class aristocrats not trained in the law, and felt unduly constrained by the legalistic demands of the Americans. In the period from the 1680s to about 1715 numerous efforts were made to strengthen royal control and diminish legal constraints on the power of the governors. Colonial lawyers fought back successfully. An important technique that developed especially in Boston, Philadelphia and New York in the 1720s and 1730s was to mobilize public opinion by using the new availability of weekly newspapers and print shops that produced inexpensive pamphlets. The lawyers used the publicity medium to disseminate ideas about American legal rights as Englishmen.[53] By the 1750s and 1760s, however, there was a counterattack ridiculing and demeaning the lawyers as pettifoggers. Their image and influence declined.[54]
The lawyers of colonial New York organized a bar association, but it fell apart in 1768 during the bitter political dispute between the factions based in the Delancey and Livingston families. For the next century, various attempts were made, and failed, in New York state to build an effective organization of lawyers. The American Revolution saw the departure of many leading lawyers who were Loyalists; their clientele was often tied to royal authority or British merchants and financiers. They were not allowed to practice law unless they took a loyalty oath to the new United States of America. Many went to Britain or Canada after losing the war.[55] Finally a Bar Association emerged in 1869 that proved successful and continues to operate.[56]
Judiciary
Initially the Province of New York started with the system of courts it had had in its earlier period of English rule: the Court of Assizes, the Court of Sessions, and a series of town courts such as the Mayor's Court of the City of New York.
In 1683 the Court of Assizes was abolished, with its jurisdiction being transferred to a new Court of Oyer and Terminer and Court of Chancery.[57]
The Supreme Court of Judicature of the Province of New York was established by the
- Chief Justices of the Supreme Court[52]
Incumbent | Tenure | Notes |- !Took office !Left office |- | Joseph Dudley |6 May 1691 |1692 | Removed from office by Governor |- | William "Tangier" Smith |11 November 1692 | |- | Abraham de Peyster |21 January 1701 |5 August 1701 | |- |William Atwood |5 August 1701 |November 1702 | - |William "Tangier" Smith |9 June 1702 |5 April 1703 | |- |John Bridges |5 April 1703 | Died 6 July 1704 |- |Roger Mompesson |15 July 1704 | Died March 1715. Also Chief Justice of New Jersey (1704–1710) and Pennsylvania (1706) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
- | James De Lancey | 1733 | 1760 |Died 30 July 1760 |- | Benjamin Pratt | October 1761 | ?1763 | Died 5 January 1763 | ||||
Daniel Hormansden | March 1763 | 1776 | Died 28 September 1778 |
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1664 | 10,000 | — |
1670 | 5,754 | −42.5% |
1680 | 9,830 | +70.8% |
1688 | 20,000 | +103.5% |
1690 | 13,909 | −30.5% |
1698 | 18,067 | +29.9% |
1700 | 19,107 | +5.8% |
1710 | 21,625 | +13.2% |
1715 | 31,000 | +43.4% |
1720 | 36,919 | +19.1% |
1723 | 40,564 | +9.9% |
1730 | 48,594 | +19.8% |
1731 | 50,289 | +3.5% |
1740 | 63,665 | +26.6% |
1749 | 73,448 | +15.4% |
1750 | 76,696 | +4.4% |
1756 | 96,775 | +26.2% |
1760 | 117,138 | +21.0% |
1770 | 162,920 | +39.1% |
1771 | 168,017 | +3.1% |
1780 | 210,541 | +25.3% |
Source: 1664–1760;[58][59] 1771[60] 1770–1780[61] |
Upstate New York (as well as parts of present Ontario, Quebec, Pennsylvania and Ohio) were occupied by the Five Nations (after 1720 becoming
- In 1664, one-quarter of the population of New York was African American.
- In 1690, the population of the province was 20,000, of which 6,000 were in New York.
- In 1698, the population of the province was 18,607. 14% of the population of New York was black.
- The slave population grew after Queen Anne's war. The percentage of blacks in New York in 1731 and 1746 was 18% and 21% respectively.
- In 1756, the population of the province was about 100,000 of which about 14,000 were blacks. Most of the blacks in New York at this time were slaves.
Economy
The fur trade established under Dutch rule continued to grow. As the merchant port of New York became more important, the economy expanded and diversified and the agricultural areas of Long Island and the regions further up the Hudson River developed.[62] Fishermen also made a decent living because New York was next to the ocean, making it a port/fishing state. Inland, farming crops made farmers a lot of money in the colony. Tradesmen made a fortune selling their wares.
References
- ^ "James, Duke of York". Historical Society of the New York Courts. Retrieved March 14, 2021.
- ^ a b c Smith, William. The history of the province of New-York, 1757
- ^ a b c Lincoln. Charles Zebina, Johnson, William H., and Northrup, Ansel Judd. The Colonial Laws of New York from the Year 1664 to the Revolution, J.B. Lyon, 1894
- ISBN 0738523933.
- Philip Carteret.
- ^ Rieff, Henry. "Interpretations of New York-New Jersey Agreements 1834 and 1921" (PDF). Newark Law Review. 1 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2006.
- ^ "Land Speculation and Proprietary Beginnings of New Jersey" (PDF). The Advocate. XVI (4). New Jersey Land Title Association: 3, 20, 14. Retrieved April 15, 2010.
- ^ "Timeline". New York State Senate. February 13, 2009. Retrieved May 16, 2017.
- ^ Kammen, p. 86.
- ^ Dunlap, William. History of New Netherlands, Province of New York, and State of New York, Vol.1, Carter & Thorp, New York, 1839
- ISBN 9781429931311.
- ^ Robert A Emery, "Chapter 33: New York Pre-Statehood Legal Research Materials" in Prestatehood Legal Materials: A Fifty-State Research Guide (Vol. 1, A-M), eds. Michael Chiorazzi & Marguerite Most (Routledge, 2013).
- ^ :ee, 1923, pp. 36–37
- ISBN 9780939072064.
- ^ Thomas S. Wermuth, Rip Van Winkle's Neighbors: The Transformation of Rural Society in the Hudson River Valley, 1720–1850 (2001).
- ^ Jacob Ernest Cooke, ed. Encyclopedia of the North American colonies (3 vol. 1993), highly detailed coverage of the Dutch colonists.
- ^ A. G. Roeber "Dutch colonists cope with English control" in Bernard Bailyn, and Philip D. Morgan, eds. Strangers within the realm: cultural margins of the first British Empire (1991) pp. 222–36.
- ^ Randall Balmer, A Perfect Babel of Confusion: Dutch Religion and English Culture in the Middle Colonies (2002).
- ^ Philip Otterness, Becoming German: The 1709 Palatine Migration to New York (2004)
- ^ Graham Russell Hodges, Root and Branch: African Americans in New York and East Jersey, 1613–1863 (2005).
- ^ Peter Charles Hoffer, The Great New York Conspiracy of 1741: Slavery, Crime, and Colonial Law (2003).
- ^ "African Burial Ground" Archived November 14, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, General Services Administration. Retrieved April 9, 2009.
- ^ Nash (1986), p. 109.
- ^ Nash (1986), p. 110.
- ^ Ian K. Steele, Betrayals: Fort William Henry and the Massacre (1990).
- ^ Nash (1986) p. 151.
- ^ Michael J. Mullin, "Personal Politics: William Johnson and the Mohawks." American Indian Quarterly 17#3 (1993): 350–358.
- ^ Carl Lotus Becker, The history of political parties in the province of New York, 1760–1776 (1909) pp. 5–22.
- ^ Nash (1986), p. 184.
- ^ Becker, The history of political parties in the province of New York, 1760–1776 (1909) pp. 23–52.
- ^ a b Nash (2005) p. 55.
- ^ Nash (2005) p. 54. Nash (p. 58) also wrote, "In New York City ... the Stamp Act demonstrators were led at first by men higher up on the social order – ship captains, master craftsmen, and even lawyers, but then escaped their control."
- ^ Anderson pp. 678–679.
- ^ Michael G. Kammen, Colonial New York: A History (1975) pp. 329–56.
- ^ Roger Champagne, "Family Politics versus Constitutional Principles: The New York Assembly Elections of 1768 and 1769." William and Mary Quarterly (1963): 57–79. in JSTOR
- ^ Milton M. Klein, "Democracy and Politics in Colonial New York." New York History 40#3 (1959): 221–246. in JSTOR
- ^ Becker, The history of political parties in the province of New York, 1760–1776 (1909) pp. 53–94.
- ^ Nash (1986), p. 234.
- ^ Becker, The history of political parties in the province of New York, 1760–1776 (1909) pp. 95–111.
- ^ Launitz-Schurer, p. 103.
- ^ Becker, The history of political parties in the province of New York, 1760–1776 (1909) pp. 113–57.
- ^ Edward Countryman, "Consolidating Power in Revolutionary America: The Case of New York, 1775–1783." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 6.4 (1976): 645–677. in JSTOR
- ISBN 0-8027-1374-2.
- ISBN 978-0-7432-2671-4.
- ^ Launitz-Schurer, p. 158.
- ^ Becker, The history of political parties in the province of New York, 1760–1776 (1909) pp 159–73.
- ^ "Declaration of Independence". www.history.com. Archived from the original on April 9, 2008. Retrieved April 10, 2008.
- ^ Edward Countryman, A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 1760–1790 (1981).
- ^ Countryman, A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 1760–1790 (1981).
- ^ Becker, The history of political parties in the province of New York, 1760–1776 (1909) pp. 5–22.
- ^ Osborn, David. "A Meddling Royal Official: Turnout at a Famous Colonial Election in Westchester County in 1733" (PDF). National Park Service. p. 1.
- ^ a b "The Supreme Court of the Province of New York 1674–1776 - Jacob Milborne". Historical Society of the New York Courts. Archived from the original on October 6, 2015. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
- ^ Gregory Afinogenov, "Lawyers and Politics in Eighteenth-Century New York." New York History 89.2 (2008): 142–162. online
- ^ Luke J. Feder, "'No Lawyer in the Assembly!": Character Politics and the Election of 1768 in New York City." New York History 95.2 (2014): 154–171. online
- ^ Anton-Hermann Chroust, The rise of the legal profession in America (1965) vol 2:3–11
- ^ Albert P. Blaustein, "New York Bar Associations Prior to 1870." American Journal of Legal History 12.1 (1968): 50–57. online
- ^ "Colonial New York Under British Rule". Historical Society of the New York Courts.
- ISBN 978-0816025275.
- ISBN 0-8063-1377-3.
- ISBN 978-0816025282.
- ^ "Colonial and Pre-Federal Statistics" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. p. 1168.
- ^ Michael G. Kammen, Colonial New York: A History (1975) ch 2, 7, 12.
Sources
- Lee, James Melvin (1923). History of American journalism. Boston, New York, Houghton Mifflin Company.
Further reading
- Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War (2000). ISBN 0-375-70636-4.
- Becker, Carl Lotus. The history of political parties in the province of New York, 1760–1776 (1909) online.
- Bonomi, Patricia U. A Factious People: Politics and Society in Colonial New York. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971.
- Brandt, Clare. An American Aristocracy: The Livingstons (1986).
- Bridenbaugh, Carl. Cities in the Wilderness-The First Century of Urban Life in America 1625–1742 (1938). New York, Boston, Philadelphia and Chareleston.
- Bridenbaugh, Carl. Cities in revolt: urban life in America, 1743–1776 (1955).
- Countryman, Edward. A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 1760–1790 (1981).
- Doyle, John Andrew. English Colonies in America: Volume IV The Middle Colonies (1907) online ch 1–6.
- Fogleman, Aaron. Hopeful Journeys: German Immigration, Settlement, and Political Culture in Colonial America, 1717–1775 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996) online Archived March 25, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
- Hodges, Graham Russell Gao. Root and Branch: African Americans in New York and East Jersey, 1613–1863 (2005).
- Jacobs, Jaap, and L. H. Roper, eds. The Worlds of the Seventeenth-Century Hudson Valley (State University of New York Press, 2014). xii, 265 pp.
- Kammen, Michael. Colonial New York: A History (1975).
- Ketchum, Richard, Divided Loyalties, How the American Revolution Came to New York, 2002, ISBN 0-8050-6120-7.
- Launitz-Schurer, Leopold, Loyal Whigs and Revolutionaries, The making of the revolution in New York, 1765–1776, 1980, ISBN 0-8147-4994-1.
- McGregor, Robert Kuhn. "Cultural Adaptation in Colonial New York: The Palatine Germans of the Mohawk Valley." New York History 69.1 (1988): 5.
- Nash, Gary, The Urban Crucible, The Northern Seaports and the Origins of the American Revolution, 1986, ISBN 0-674-93058-4.
- Nash, Gary, The Unknown American Revolution. 2005, ISBN 0-670-03420-7.
- Otterness, Philip. Becoming German: The 1709 Palatine Migration to New York (2004)
- Schecter, Barnet. The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution. Pimlico, 2003. ISBN 0-7126-3648-X.
External links
- Grant to the Lords Proprietors, Sir George Carteret, July 29, 1674
- Duke of York's Confirmation to the 24 Proprietors: March 14, 1682
- The King's Letter Recognizing the Proprietors' Right to the Soil and Government 1683
- Constitution of New York Province, 1683 Archived February 5, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
- Association of the Sons of Liberty in New York, December 15, 1773
- 1776 map of Province of New York
- Colonial New York Genealogy & History