Prunus

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Prunus
Temporal range: Eocene - recent[1]
Prunus cerasus (sour cherry) in bloom
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Subfamily: Amygdaloideae
Tribe: Amygdaleae
Genus: Prunus
L.
Type species
P. domestica
Synonyms

Prunus is a genus of

endocarp is edible while the endocarp itself forms a hard, inedible shell called the pyrena ("stone" or "pit").[6] This shell encloses the seed (or "kernel"), which is edible in some species (such as sweet almonds), but poisonous in many others (such as apricots). Besides being eaten off the hand, most Prunus fruit are also commonly used in processing, such as jam production, canning, drying, and the seeds for roasting.[7]

'Kanzan' Cherry tree in full bloom in April in Virginia, USA.
View of the inner canopy of Kanzan Cherry during full bloom.

Botany

Members of the genus can be

stamens are present. Flowers are borne singly, or in umbels of two to six or sometimes more on racemes. The fruit is a fleshy drupe (a "prune") with a single relatively large, hard-coated seed (a "stone").[8]

Within the rose family

Prunaceae (or Amygdalaceae). More recently, Prunus is thought to have evolved from within a much larger clade now called subfamily Amygdaloideae (incorrectly "Spiraeoideae").[2]

Classification

Evolutionary history

The oldest fossils confirmed to belong to Prunus date to the Eocene, and are found across the Northern Hemisphere. Older potential Late Cretaceous records are unconfirmed.[9]

Linnean classification

In 1737, Carl Linnaeus used four genera to include the species of modern Prunus—Amygdalus, Cerasus, Prunus, and Padus—but simplified it to Amygdalus and Prunus in 1758.[10] Since then, the various genera of Linnaeus and others have become subgenera and sections, as all the species clearly are more closely related. Liberty Hyde Bailey said: "The numerous forms grade into each other so imperceptibly and inextricably that the genus cannot be readily broken up into species."[11]

Traditional classification

Historical treatments break the genus into several different genera, but this segregation is not currently widely recognised other than at the subgeneric rank. The ITIS recognises just the single genus Prunus, with an open list of species,[a] all of which are given at List of Prunus species.[b]

One treatment of the subgenera derives from the work of Alfred Rehder in 1940. Rehder hypothesized five subgenera: Amygdalus, Prunus, Cerasus, Padus, and Laurocerasus.[12] To them C. Ingram added Lithocerasus.[13] The six subgenera are described as follows:

  • Subgenus Amygdalus,
    Prunus dulcis
    (almond)
  • Subgenus Prunus, plums and apricots: axillary buds solitary; flowers in early spring stalked, not on leafed shoots; fruit with a groove along one side, stone rough; type species: Prunus domestica (plum)
  • true cherries: axillary buds single; flowers in early spring in corymbs, long-stalked, not on leafed shoots; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species: Prunus cerasus
    (sour cherry)
  • bush cherries: axillary buds in threes; flowers in early spring in corymbs, long-stalked, not on leafed shoots; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species: Prunus pumila
    (sand cherry)
  • Subgenus Padus, bird cherries: axillary buds single; flowers in late spring in racemes on leafy shoots, short-stalked; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species: Prunus padus (European bird cherry), now known to be polyphyletic[14]
  • cherry laurels: mostly evergreen (all the other subgenera are deciduous); axillary buds single; flowers in early spring in racemes, not on leafed shoots, short-stalked; fruit not grooved, stone smooth; type species: Prunus laurocerasus
    (European cherry-laurel)

Phylogenetic classification

An extensive phylogenetic study based on different chloroplast and nuclear sequences divides Prunus into three subgenera:[15]

Species

Main article: List of Prunus species

The lists below are incomplete, but include most of the better-known species.

Afro-Eurasian species

Japanese cherry
(Prunus serrulata) blossoms
Tibetan cherry
(Prunus serrula) bark

Species found in the Americas

Black cherry
(Prunus serotina) in bloom

Cultivation

The development sequence of a nectarine (P. persica) over a 7.5-month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer

The genus Prunus includes the

plums, all of which have cultivars developed for commercial fruit and nut production. The almond is not a true nut
; the edible part is the seed. Other species are occasionally cultivated or used for their seed and fruit.

A number of species, hybrids, and cultivars are grown as ornamental plants, usually for their profusion of flowers, sometimes for ornamental foliage and shape, and occasionally for their bark.

Because of their considerable value as both food and ornamental plants, many Prunus species have been introduced to parts of the world to which they are not native, some becoming naturalised.

The Tree of 40 Fruit has 40 varieties grafted on to one rootstock.[16][17]

Species such as blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), are grown for hedging, game cover, and other utilitarian purposes.

The wood of some species (notably

timber
, especially in North America.

Many species produce an aromatic gum from wounds in the trunk; this is sometimes used medicinally. Other minor uses include dye production.

Pygeum, a herbal remedy containing extracts from the bark of Prunus africana, is used as to alleviate some of the discomfort caused by inflammation in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia
.

Prunus species are food plants for the

butterflies and moths
).

Prunus species are included in the

flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone.[18]

Ornamental Prunus

See also: List of Award of Garden Merit flowering cherries

Ornamentals include the group that may be collectively called "flowering cherries" (including sakura, the Japanese flowering cherries).

Toxicity

Many species are

cyanogenic; that is, they contain compounds called cyanogenic glucosides, notably amygdalin, which, on hydrolysis, yield hydrogen cyanide.[19] Although the fruits of some may be edible by humans and livestock (in addition to the ubiquitous fructivore of birds), seeds, leaves and other parts may be toxic, some highly so.[20]
The plants contain no more than trace amounts of hydrogen cyanide, but on decomposition after crushing and exposure to air or on digestion, poisonous amounts may be generated. The trace amounts may give a characteristic taste ("bitter almond") with increasing bitterness in larger quantities, less tolerable to people than to birds, which habitually feed on specific fruits.

Benefits to human health

People are often encouraged to consume many fruits because they are rich in a variety of nutrients and phytochemicals that are supposedly beneficial to human health. The fruits of Prunus often contain many

diabetes, and other age-related declines.[23][24] Many factors can affect the levels of bioactive compounds in the different fruits of the genus Prunus, including the environment, season, processing methods, orchard operations, and postharvest management.[7]

Cherries

Cherries contain many different phenolic compounds and anthocyanins, which are indicators of being rich in antioxidants.[25][23] Recent research has linked the phenolic compounds of the sweet cherry (Prunus avium) with antitumor properties.[26]

superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and singlet oxygen; they are the byproducts of metabolism. High levels of ROS lead to oxidative stress, which causes damage to lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The oxidative damage results in cell death, which ultimately leads to numerous diseases and disorders. Antioxidants act as a defense mechanism against the oxidative stress.[23][24] They are used to remove the free radicals in a living system that are generated as ROS.[27][23] Some of those antioxidants include gutathione S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase.[27] The antioxidants present in cherry extracts act as inhibitors of the free radicals.[21] However, the DNA and proteins can be damaged when an imbalance occurs in the level of free radicals and the antioxidants. When not enough antioxidants are available to remove the free radicals, many diseases can occur, such as cancers, cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson's disease, etc.[24] Recent studies have shown that using natural antioxidants as a supplement in chemotherapy can decrease the amount of oxidative damage. Some of these natural antioxidants include ascorbic acid, tocopherol, and epigallocatechin gallate; they can be found in certain cherry extracts.[27]

Almonds

Similar to cherries, strawberries, and raspberries, almonds are also rich in

dihydroflavonols, and flavanones.[30][28]

Plums

Of all of the different species of stone fruits, plums are the richest in antioxidants and phenolic compounds. The total antioxidant capacity (TAC) varies within each fruit, but in plums, TAC is much higher in the skin than in the flesh of the fruit.[7][31][22]

Apricots

Apricots are high in

epicatechin, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, and ferulic acid.[32][33]

Peaches and nectarines

Similar to the plum, peaches and nectarines also have higher TAC in the skin than in the flesh.[7][31] They also contain moderate levels of carotenoids and ascorbic acid.[34][31][22] Peaches and nectarines are orange and yellow in color, which can be attributed to the carotenoids present.[7]

Pests and diseases

Cherries are prone to gummosis.

Various Prunus species are winter hosts of the Damson-hop aphid, Phorodon humuli, which is destructive to hops Humulus lupulus just at the time of their maturity,[35] so plum trees should not be grown in the vicinity of hop fields.

Corking is the drying or withering of fruit tissue.[36] In stone fruit, it is often caused by a lack of boron and/or calcium.[37]

Gummosis is a nonspecific condition of stone fruits (peach, nectarine, plum, and cherry) in which gum is exuded and deposited on the bark of trees. Gum is produced in response to any type of wound – insect, mechanical injury, or disease.[38]

Apiosporina morbosa is a major fungal disease in the Northern Americas, with many urban centres running black knot fungus management programs.[39] This disease is best managed by physical removal of knot-bearing branches to prevent spore spread and immediate disposal of infected tissue.[39] Chemical treatment is not largely effective, as trees can easily be re-infected by neighbouring knots.

Laetiporus gilbertsoni (commonly sulfur shelf and chicken of the woods), is a serious cubic brown rot parasite which attacks certain species of decorative red-leaf plum trees in the genus Prunus on the Pacific coast of North America.[40][41]

Palaeobotanical models

The earliest known fossil Prunus specimens are wood, drupe, seed, and a leaf from the middle

Angiosperm families such as the Rosaceae ...."[42] The oldest fossil species is Prunus cathybrownae from the Klondike Mountain Formation.[44]

The Princeton finds are among a large number of angiosperm fossils from the

Okanagan Highlands dating to the late early and middle Eocene. Crataegus is found at three locations: the McAbee Fossil Beds, British Columbia; the Klondike Mountain Formation around Republic, Washington, and the Allenby Formation around Princeton, British Columbia, while Prunus is found at those locations plus the Coldwater Beds of Quilchena, British Columbia and Chu Chua Formation around Chu Chua, British Columbia. A review of research on the Eocene Okanagan Highlands[45] reported that the Rosaceae were more diverse at higher altitudes. The Okanagan highlands formations date to as early as 52 mya, but the 44.3 mya date[citation needed], which is approximate, depending on assumptions, might still apply. The authors state: "... the McAbee flora records a diverse early middle Eocene angiosperm-dominated forest."[45]
: 165 

Etymology

The

Asia Minor, related to Phrygian
.

The first use of Prunus as a genus name was by Carl Linnaeus in Hortus Cliffortianus of 1737,[52] which went on to become Species Plantarum. In the latter, Linnaeus attributes the word to "Varr.", who it is assumed must be Marcus Terentius Varro.[dubious – discuss]

Notes

  1. ^ Do a search in the ITIS database on the scientific name Prunus for its current list.
  2. ^ Other species appear, as well, which for whatever reasons are not yet in ITIS.
  3. ^ A date of 76 mya is given for Rosaceae, which is within the late Cretaceous.

References

  1. ^ "Rosales". www.mobot.org. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
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  3. ^ a b "Prunus L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
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  10. ^ Linnaeus Carolus (1830). Sprengel, Curtius (ed.). Genera Plantarum Editio Nona [Plant Categories, Ninth Edition]. Gottingen: Dieterich. pp. 402–403.
  11. ^ Bailey, Liberty Hyde (1898). Sketch of the Evolution of Our Native Fruits. New York: The MacMillan Company. p. 181.
  12. PMID 11159135
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  13. ^ Okie, William (July 2003). "Stone Fruits". In Janick, J.; Paulii, R.E. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Fruits and Nuts. C A B Intl (published 2008).
  14. S2CID 5991106
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  16. ^ "The Gift of Graft: New York Artist's Tree To Grow 40 Kinds of Fruit". NPR. 3 August 2014. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
  17. ^ "This tree produces 40 different types of fruit". ScienceAlert. 21 July 2014. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
  18. ^ Chladil, Mark; Sheridan, Jennifer (2006). "Fire retardant garden plants for the urban fringe and rural areas" (PDF). www.fire.tas.gov.au. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
  19. ^ Armstrong, E. Frankland (1913). "Glucosides". In Davis, W.A.; Sadtler, Samuel S. (eds.). Allen's Commercial Organic Analysis. Vol. VII (Fourth ed.). Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's Son & Co. p. 102. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
  20. ^ Cook, Laurence Martin; Callow, Robert S. (1999). Genetic and evolutionary diversity: the sport of nature (2nd ed.). Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes. p. 135.
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  36. ^ Benson, N.R.; Woodbridge, C.G.; Bartram, R.D. (1994). "Nutrient Disorders in Tree Fruits" (PDF). Pacific Northwest Extension Publications. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
  37. ^ Day, Kevin (27 January 1999). "Peach and Nectarine Cork Spot:A Review of the 1998 Season" (PDF). University of California Cooperative Extension – Tulare County. University of California, Davis. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
  38. ^ Hartman, John; Bachi, Paul (November 2005). "Gummosis and Perennial Canker of Stone Fruits" (PDF). Plant Pathology. University of Kentucky. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
  39. ^ a b "Black knot". www.alberta.ca. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
  40. ^ "Chicken of the Woods (Laetiporus sulphureus species complex)". Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  41. ^ "Yellow tree fungus on very old plum tree #246036". ask2.extension.org. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  42. ^
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    doi:10.1139/e04-084. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 2 September 2007.
  46. ^ "plum". Online Etymological Dictionary.
  47. ^ "prune". Online Etymological Dictionary.
  48. ^ "prūnum". Lewis's Elementary Latin Dictionary. Perseus Digital Library. 1890.
  49. ^ "prūnus". Lewis's Elementary Latin Dictionary. Perseus Digital Library. 1890.
  50. ^ "προῦμνον". Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.
  51. ^ "προύμνη". Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.
  52. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.690
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