Prussia

Prussia Preußen ( Prussian)
1525–1947[a]
State flag (1803–1892) Coat of arms (1701–1871)
Motto:  Royal anthem:  (1795–1918) "Heil dir im Siegerkranz" ("Hail to thee in the Victor's Crown")[1]
Within the Holy Roman Empire in 1714 Within the Holy Roman Empire in 1797 Within the German Confederation in 1815 Within the North German Confederation in 1870 Within the German Empire in 1871
Capital	Königsberg (1525–1701; 1806) Berlin (1701–1806; 1806–1947)
Common languages	Official: German Minorities: Albert I (first)
• 1688–1701	Frederick I (last)
Wilhelm II (last)
Minister-President[a][b]
• 1918	Friedrich Ebert (first)
• 1933–1945	Hermann Göring (last)
Historical era	Union with Brandenburg	27 August 1618
• Kingdom of Prussia	18 January 1701
• Free State of Prussia	9 November 1918
• Abolition (de facto, loss of independence)	30 January 1934
• Abolition (de jure)	25 February 1947[a]
Population
• 1816[2]	10,349,000
• 1871[2]	24,689,000
• 1939[2]	41,915,040
Currency	German Papiermark (1914–1923) Reichsmark (1924–1947)
^ The heads of state listed here are the first and last to hold each title over time. For more information, see individual Prussian state articles (links in above History section). ^ The position of Ministerpräsident was introduced in 1792 when Prussia was a Kingdom; the Minister-Presidents shown here are the heads of the Prussian republic.

Prussia (

The terms "Prussian" and "Prussianism" have often been used, especially outside Germany, to denote the militarism, military professionalism, aggressiveness, and conservatism of the Junker class of landed aristocrats in the East who dominated first Prussia and then the German Empire.

History of Brandenburg and Prussia
Northern March (965 – 983) Lutician federation (983 – 12th century) Old Prussians (pre – 13th century) Margraviate of Brandenburg (1157–1618) Teutonic Order (1224 – 1525) Elector of Brandenburg (1356 – 1806) Duchy of Prussia (1525 – 1618) Malbork Voivodeship and Prince-Bishopric of Warmia within Royal (Polish) Prussia (Poland 1454/1466 – 1772) Brandenburg-Prussia (1618 – 1701) Kingdom of Prussia (1701 – 1918) Free State of Prussia (1918 – 1947)
Present
Działdowo area (from 1918) Klaipėda Region (1920–1939, from 1945) Warmia, Masuria within Recovered Territories (from 1945) Kaliningrad Oblast (from 1945) Berlin and Brandenburg (1947–1952, from 1990)

The main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background.

The black and white

Suum cuique ("to each, his own"), the motto of the Order of the Black Eagle created by King Frederick I in 1701, was often associated with the whole of Prussia. The Iron Cross, a military decoration created by King Frederick William III in 1813, was also commonly associated with the country.^{[citation needed]} The region, originally populated by Baltic Old Prussians who were Christianised, became a favoured location for immigration by (later mainly Protestant) Germans (see Ostsiedlung), as well as Poles and Lithuanians along the border regions.

Before its abolition, the territory of the

The expansion of Prussia based on its connection with the Hanseatic League cut both Poland and Lithuania off from the coast of the Baltic Sea and trade abroad.^[6] This meant that Poland and Lithuania would be traditional enemies of Prussia, which was still called the Teutonic Knights.^[7]

In 1211 King

The Hanseatic League officially formed in northern Europe in 1356 as a group of trading cities. This League came to hold a monopoly on all trade leaving the interior of Europe and Scandinavia and on all sailing trade in the Baltic Sea for foreign countries.^[9]

In the course of the Ostsiedlung (German eastward expansion) process, settlers were invited^{[by whom?]}, bringing changes in the ethnic composition as well as in language, culture, and law of the eastern borders of the German lands. As a majority of these settlers were Germans, Low German became the dominant language.

The Knights of the Teutonic Order were subordinate to the

During the period of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights, mercenaries from the Holy Roman Empire were granted lands by the Order and gradually formed a new landed Prussian nobility, from which the Junkers would evolve to take a major role in the militarization of Prussia and, later, Germany.^[11]

On 10 April 1525, after signing of the

During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), various armies repeatedly marched across the disconnected Hohenzollern lands, especially the occupying Swedes. The ineffective and militarily weak Elector George William (1619–1640) fled from Berlin to Königsberg, the historic capital of the Duchy of Prussia, in 1637. His successor, Frederick William I (1640–1688), reformed the army to defend the lands.

Frederick William I went to

On 18 January 1701, Frederick William's son, Elector Frederick III, elevated Prussia from a duchy to a kingdom and crowned himself King

Frederick William I died in 1740 and was succeeded by his son,

Silesia, full of rich soils and prosperous manufacturing towns, became a vital region to Prussia, greatly increasing the nation's area, population, and wealth.^[23] Success on the battleground against Austria and other powers proved Prussia's status as one of the great powers of Europe. The Silesian Wars began more than a century of rivalry and conflict between Prussia and Austria as the two most powerful states operating within the Holy Roman Empire (although both had extensive territory outside the empire).^[24] In 1744, the County of East Frisia fell to Prussia following the extinction of its ruling Cirksena dynasty.

In the last 23 years of his reign until 1786, Frederick II, who understood himself as the "first servant of the state", promoted the development of Prussian areas such as the Oderbruch. At the same time he built up Prussia's military power and participated in the First Partition of Poland with Austria and Russia in 1772, an act that geographically connected the Brandenburg territories with those of Prussia proper. The partition also added Polish Royal Prussia to the kingdom, allowing Frederick to re-style himself King of Prussia. During this period, he also opened Prussia's borders to immigrants fleeing from religious persecution in other parts of Europe, such as the Huguenots. Prussia became a safe haven in much the same way that the United States welcomed immigrants seeking freedom in the 19th century.^[25]

Frederick the Great (reigned 1740–1786) practised enlightened absolutism. He built the world's best army, and usually won his many wars. He introduced a general civil code, abolished torture and established the principle that the Crown would not interfere in matters of justice.^[26] He also promoted an advanced secondary education, the forerunner of today's German gymnasium (grammar school) system, which prepares the brightest pupils for university studies. The Prussian education system was emulated in various countries, including the United States.^[25]

Prussia took a leading part in the

The first half of the 19th century saw a prolonged struggle in Germany between liberals, who wanted a united, federal Germany under a democratic constitution, and conservatives, who wanted to maintain Germany as a patchwork of independent, monarchical states with Prussia and Austria competing for influence. One small movement that signalled a desire for German unification in this period was the Burschenschaft student movement, by students who encouraged the use of the black-red-gold flag, discussions of a unified German nation, and a progressive, liberal political system. Because of Prussia's size and economic importance, smaller states began to join its free trade area in the 1820s. Prussia benefited greatly from the creation in 1834 of the German Customs Union (Zollverein), which included most German states but excluded Austria.^[27]

In 1848 the liberals saw an opportunity when

The Frankfurt Parliament was forced to dissolve in 1849, and Frederick William issued a constitution by his own authority in 1850. This conservative document provided for a two-house parliament, the Landtag of Prussia. The lower house, or Prussian House of Representatives was elected by all males over the age of 25. They were divided into three classes whose votes were weighted according to the amount of taxes paid. In one typical election, the first class (with those who paid the most in taxes) included 4% of voters and the third class (with those who paid the least) had 82%, yet each group chose the same number of electors.^[31] The system but assured dominance by the more well-to-do men of the population. The upper house, the Prussian House of Lords, was appointed by the king. He retained full executive authority, and ministers were responsible only to him. As a result, the grip of the landowning classes, the Junkers, remained unbroken, especially in the eastern provinces.^[32] The constitution nevertheless contained a number of liberal elements such as the introduction of jury courts and a catalog of fundamental rights that included freedom of religion, speech and the press.^[33]

In 1862 King

Bismarck realised that the dual administration of Schleswig and Holstein was only a temporary solution, and tensions rose between Prussia and Austria. The struggle for supremacy in Germany then led to the Austro-Prussian War (1866), triggered by the dispute over Schleswig and Holstein, with Bismarck using proposed injustices as the reason for war.

On the Austrian side stood the south German states (including Bavaria and Württemberg), some central German states (including Saxony), and Hanover in the north. On the side of Prussia were Italy, most north German states, and some smaller central German states. Eventually, the better-armed Prussian troops won the crucial victory at the Battle of Königgrätz under Helmuth von Moltke the Elder. The century-long struggle between Berlin and Vienna for the dominance of Germany was now over. As a sideshow in this war, Prussia defeated Hanover in the Battle of Langensalza (1866). While Hanover hoped in vain for help from Britain (as they had previously been in personal union), Britain stayed out of a confrontation with a continental great power and Prussia satisfied its desire for merging the once separate territories and gaining strong economic and strategic power, particularly from the full access to the resources of the Ruhr.^[36]

Bismarck desired Austria as an ally in the future, and so he declined to annex any Austrian territory. But in the Peace of Prague in 1866, Prussia annexed four of Austria's allies in northern and central Germany – Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau and Frankfurt. Prussia also won full control of Schleswig-Holstein. As a result of these territorial gains, Prussia now stretched uninterrupted across the northern two-thirds of Germany and contained two-thirds of Germany's population. The German Confederation was dissolved, and Prussia impelled the 21 states north of the Main river into forming the North German Confederation.

Prussia was the dominant state in the new confederation, as the kingdom comprised almost four-fifths of the new state's territory and population. Prussia's near-total control over the confederation was secured in the constitution drafted for it by Bismarck in 1867. Executive power was held by a president, assisted by a chancellor responsible only to him. The presidency was a hereditary office of the Hohenzollern rulers of Prussia. There was also a two-house parliament. The lower house, or Reichstag (Diet), was elected by universal male suffrage. The upper house, or Bundesrat (Federal Council) was appointed by the state governments. The Bundesrat was, in practice, the stronger chamber. Prussia had 17 of 43 votes, and could easily control proceedings through alliances with the other states.

As a result of the peace negotiations, the states south of the Main remained theoretically independent, but received the (compulsory) protection of Prussia. Additionally, mutual defence treaties were concluded. However, the existence of these treaties was kept secret until Bismarck made them public in 1867 when France tried to acquire Luxembourg.

The controversy with the

The two decades after the unification of Germany were the peak of Prussia's fortunes, but the seeds for potential strife were built into the Prusso-German political system.

The Constitution of the German Empire was a version of the North German Confederation's constitution. Officially, the German Empire was a federal state. In practice, Prussia overshadowed the rest of the empire. Prussia included three-fifths of the German territory and two-thirds of its population. The Imperial German Army was, in practice, an enlarged Prussian army, although the other kingdoms (Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg) retained their own small armies, coming under Imperial control in wartime. The imperial crown was a hereditary office of the House of Hohenzollern, the royal house of Prussia. The Minister President of Prussia was, except for two brief periods (January–November 1873 and 1892–94), also imperial chancellor. But the empire itself had no right to collect taxes directly from its subjects; the only incomes fully under federal control were the customs duties, common excise duties, and the revenue from postal and telegraph services. While all men above age 25 were eligible to vote in imperial elections, Prussia retained its restrictive three-class voting system. This effectively required the king/emperor and prime minister/chancellor to seek majorities from legislatures elected by two different franchises. In both the kingdom and the empire, the original constituencies were never redrawn to reflect changes in population, meaning that rural areas were grossly overrepresented by the turn of the 20th century.

As a result, Prussia and the German Empire were something of a paradox. Bismarck knew that his new German Empire was now a colossus and economically and militarily dominant in Europe; Britain was still dominant in finance, trade and at sea. He declared Germany a "satisfied" power, using his talents to preserve peace, for example at the

Prussia nationalised its railways in the 1880s in an effort both to lower rates on freight service and to equalise those rates among shippers. Instead of lowering rates as far as possible, the government ran the railways as a profit-making endeavour, and the railway profits became a major source of revenue for the state. The nationalisation of the railways slowed the economic development of Prussia because the state favoured the relatively backward agricultural areas in its railway building. Moreover, the railway surpluses substituted for the development of an adequate tax system.^[38]

Because of the

The German government seriously considered breaking up Prussia into smaller states, but eventually traditionalist sentiment prevailed and Prussia became by far the largest state of the Weimar Republic, comprising 60% of its territory. With the abolition of the older Prussian franchise, it became a stronghold of the left. Its incorporation of "Red Berlin" and the industrialised Ruhr Area, both with working-class majorities, ensured left-wing dominance.[39]

From 1919 to 1932, Prussia was governed by a coalition of the

The East Prussian Otto Braun, who was Prussian minister-president almost continuously from 1920 to 1932, is considered one of the most capable Social Democrats in history. He implemented several trend-setting reforms together with his minister of the interior, Carl Severing, which were also models for the later Federal Republic of Germany. For instance, a Prussian minister-president could be forced out of office only if there was a "positive majority" for a potential successor. This concept, known as the constructive vote of no confidence, was carried over into the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. Most historians regard the Prussian government during this time as far more successful than that of Germany as a whole.^[41]

In contrast to its pre-war authoritarianism, Prussia was a pillar of democracy in the Weimar Republic. This system was destroyed by the

After the appointment of Hitler as the new chancellor, the Nazis used the absence of Franz von Papen as an opportunity to appoint

The Reichstag building having been set on fire a few weeks earlier on 27 February, a new Reichstag was opened in the Garrison Church of Potsdam on 21 March 1933 in the presence of President Paul von Hindenburg. In a propaganda-filled meeting between Hitler and the Nazi Party, the "marriage of old Prussia with young Germany" was celebrated, to win over the Prussian monarchists, conservatives and nationalists and induce them into supporting and subsequently voting in favor of the Enabling Act of 1933.

In the centralised state created by the Nazis in the "

This centralising policy went even further in Prussia. From 1934 to 1945, almost all ministries were merged and only a few departments were able to maintain their independence. Hitler himself became formally the governor of Prussia. However, his functions were exercised by Hermann Göring as Prussian prime minister.

As provided for in the "Greater Hamburg Act" ("Groß-Hamburg-Gesetz"), certain exchanges of territory took place. Prussia was extended on 1 April 1937, for instance, by the incorporation of the Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck.

The Prussian lands transferred to Poland after the Treaty of Versailles were re-annexed during

As part of their wartime goals, the Western allies sought the abolition of Prussia. Stalin was initially content to retain the name, Russians having a different historical view of their neighbour and sometime former ally. Nonetheless, by Law No. 46, which was accepted and implemented by the Allied Control Council on 25 February 1947, Prussia was officially proclaimed to be dissolved.^[45]

In the

In the Western Zones of occupation, which became West Germany (officially, the Federal Republic of Germany) in 1949, the former Prussian territories were divided up among North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony, Hesse, Rhineland-Palatinate and Schleswig-Holstein. Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern were later merged with Baden to create the state of Baden-Württemberg. The Saar region, which had been administered by the French as a protectorate separate from the rest of Western Germany, was admitted to the Federal Republic of Germany as a separate state following the 1955 Saar Statute referendum.

One year later, in 1957, the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation was established and implemented by federal statutes in West Germany in response to a ruling from the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany. The fundamental goal of this institution is protecting the cultural legacy of Prussia. As of 2021, it continues to operate from its headquarters in Berlin.

residence in Berlin

... during the Renaissance period

... according to the design of 1702

... according to the design of 1900

To reduce the influence of the estates, in 1604, Joachim Frederick created a council called Geheimer Rat für die Kurmark (Privy Council for the Electorate), which instead of the estates would function as the supreme advisory council for the elector.^[47] While the council was permanently established in 1613, it failed to gain any influence until 1651, owing to the Thirty Years' War^[47] (1618–1648)

Until after the

Under the rule of Frederick III (I) (reign: 1688–1713), the Brandenburg Prussian territories were de facto reduced to provinces of the monarchy.^[48] Frederick William's testament would have divided Brandenburg-Prussia among his sons, but his firstborn son Frederick III (I), with the emperor's backing, succeeded in becoming the sole ruler based on the House Treaty of Gera of 1599, which forbade a division of Hohenzollern territories.^[51] In 1689, a new central chamber for all Brandenburg-Prussian territories was established, called Geheime Hofkammer (from 1713: Generalfinanzdirektorium). This chamber functioned as a superior agency of the territories' Amtskammer chambers.^[52] The General War Commissariat (Generalkriegskommissariat) emerged as a second central agency, superior to the local Kriegskommissariat agencies initially concerned with the administration of the army, but before 1712 transformed into an agency also concerned with general tax and police tasks.^[52]

The Kingdom of Prussia functioned as an

Unlike its authoritarian pre-1918 predecessor, Prussia from 1918 to 1932 was a promising democracy within Germany. The abolition of the political power of the aristocracy transformed Prussia into a region strongly dominated by the left wing of the political spectrum, with "Red Berlin" and the industrial centre of the

In 1871, Prussia's population numbered 24.69 million, accounting for 60% of the German Empire's population.^[55] The population grew rapidly from 45 million in 1880 to 56 million in 1900, thanks to declining mortality, even as birth rates declined. About 6 million Germans, primarily young families migrated to the United States, especially the mid-western farming regions. Their place in agriculture was often taken by young Polish farm workers. In addition, large numbers of Polish miners moved to Upper Silesia and many Germans and Poles moved to industrial jobs in the fast-growing cities especially in the Rhineland and Westphalia.^[56][57] In 1910, the population had increased to 40.17 million (62% of the Empire's population).^[55] In 1914, Prussia had an area of 354,490 km². In May 1939 Prussia had an area of 297,007 km² and a population of 41,915,040 inhabitants.

Apart from ethnic Germans the country was inhabited also by ethnolinguistic minorities such as Poles (including Kashubs in West Prussia and Mazurs in East Prussia), Prussian Lithuanians (in East Prussia), Sorbs (in Lusatia), Czechs and Moravians (in Silesia), Danes (in Schleswig), Jews, Frisians, Dutch, Walloons, Russians (in Wojnowo), French, Italians, Hungarians and others.^[58]

The

Much of religious life was often conventional and superficial by any normal, human standard. The state and the bureaucracy kept their distance, preferring to spoon-feed the churches and treat them like children. They saw the churches as channels for education, as a means of instilling morality and obedience, or for propagating useful things, just like bee-keeping or potato-farming.[60]

Prussia received significant

In 1925, 64.9% of the Prussian population was Protestant, 31.3% was Catholic, 1.1% was Jewish, 2.7% was placed in other religious categories.[62]

In 1871, approximately 2.4 million Poles lived in Prussia, constituting the largest minority.^[55] Other minorities were Jews, Danes, Frisians, Dutchmen, Kashubians (72,500 in 1905), Masurians (248,000 in 1905), Lithuanians (101,500 in 1905), Walloons, Czechs, Kursenieki, and Sorbs.^[55]

The area of Greater Poland, where the Polish nation had originated, became the Province of Posen after the Partitions of Poland. Poles in this Polish-majority province (62% Polish, 38% German) resisted German rule. Also, the southeast portion of Silesia (Upper Silesia) had a Polish majority. But Catholics and Jews did not have equal status with Protestants.^[63]

As a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, the Second Polish Republic was granted not only these two areas, but also areas with a German majority in the province of West Prussia. After World War II, East Prussia, most of Pomerania and Silesia, and the eastern part of Brandenburg were either annexed by the Soviet Union or given to Poland, and the German-speaking populations forcibly expelled.

• 
  King Frederick William I of Prussia welcoming the expelled Salzburg Protestants
• 
  The Berlin Cathedral c. 1900
• 
  Prussian deportations (Polenausweisungen) were the mass expulsions of ethnic Poles between 1885 and 1890.

The German states in the 19th century were world leaders in prestigious education and Prussia set the pace.^[64][65] For boys free public education was widely available, and the gymnasium system for elite students was highly professionalized. The modern university system emerged from the 19th century German universities, especially Friedrich Wilhelm University (now named Humboldt University of Berlin). It pioneered the model of the research university with well-defined career tracks for professors.^[66] The United States, for example, paid close attention to German models. Families focused on educating their sons. The traditional schooling for girls was generally provided by mothers and governesses. Elite families increasingly favoured Catholic convent boarding schools for their daughters. Prussia's Kulturkampf laws in the 1870s limited Catholic schools thus providing an opening for a large number of new private schools for girls.^[67]

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The German states on the former territory of the Free State of Prussia are successor states to Prussia in legal terms, particularly in terms of constitutional and international law. For example, the state of North Rhine-Westphalia is bound to the concordat that the Free State of Prussia concluded with the Holy See.^[68][69]

Despite its dissolution in 1947, many aspects of Prussia have been preserved to this day in everyday life, in culture, in sport and even in names.

• In the federal government according to the prevailing view, the Federal Republic of Germany as a subject of international law is identical to the federal state initiated and dominated by Prussia, which was founded in 1867 under the name of the North German Confederation and expanded into the German Empire in 1871.
• Prussia's capital
  Bundesrat uses the Prussian House of Lords building. The Federal President has his first official residence in Bellevue Palace, the first classical building in Prussia.^[70] As the central shield of the Reich coat of arms, the Prussian state coat of arms is depicted in the gable above the main entrance to the Reichstag building
  .
• The constructive vote of no confidence anchored in the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany, which only allows the head of government to be voted out if a new successor is simultaneously elected, is directly based on a constitutional regulation of the Free State of Prussia.^{[citation needed]}
• The Prussian war award of the Iron Cross is, in a modified form, the symbol of the Bundeswehr.
• In the tradition of the 1st Guards Regiment on Foot, which was introduced in 1806 as the personal regiment of the King of Prussia, the guard battalion at the Federal Ministry of Defense has followed.
• As part of state visits, the presentation march of Friedrich Wilhelm III is a regular part of the federal diplomatic protocol at the reception with military honors and the marching down the front of the guard battalion's honor formation at the Federal Ministry of Defense is played.^{[71][clarification needed]}
• The Bundeswehr's Great Tattoo, played particularly when bidding farewell to Federal Presidents, Chancellors, Federal Defense Ministers and senior military officers, is largely composed of traditional elements of Prussian military music.
• The police star, the emblem of the Federal Police and the Feldjäger of the Bundeswehr, is derived from the Prussian Guard Star, which went back to the eight-pointed breast star of the Black Eagle Order. The guard star can also be found on the bell trees of the Bundeswehr music corps.^{[citation needed]}
• In 2002, the then Brandenburg Social Minister Alwin Ziel suggested naming the planned new federal state of Berlin-Brandenburg "Prussia".

• The state coat of arms of
  Prussian eagle
  .
• The large coat of arms of Baden-Württemberg contains the house coat of arms of the Hohenzollerns.
• The Prussian government and administration model was decisive for a large number of political institutions at the state level and is still expressed today in terms such as Minister-president, Regierungsbezirk and Landrat. Today's North Rhine-Westphalia regional associations go back to the Prussian provincial associations.
• The Rhineland Regional Association in North Rhine-Westphalia - in continuation of the tradition of the Rhine Province and its provincial association - also has the Prussian eagle in the upper part of its association coat of arms.
• The states on the former territory of the Free State of Prussia are successor states to Prussia in legal terms, particularly in terms of constitutional and international law. North Rhine-Westphalia, the largest successor state to Prussia,^[72] maintains its Prussian history and remembrance culture in the form of the Prussian Museums in Wesel and Minden.

• The Union of Evangelical Churches emerged from the Evangelical Church of the Union, a church association of the Old Prussian Protestant regional churches, i.e. H. of the churches whose area already belonged to Prussia before 1866

• Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin
• Altes Museum, Berlin
• Bode Museum, Berlin
• East Prussian Regional Museum
• List of museums and galleries in Berlin
• List of museums in Germany

Informational notes

Citations

Further reading

• Avraham, Doron (October 2008). "The Social and Religious Meaning of Nationalism: The Case of Prussian Conservatism 1815–1871". European History Quarterly. 38 (38#4): 525–550.
  S2CID 145574435
  .
• Barraclough, Geoffrey (1947). The Origins of Modern Germany (2nd ed.)., covers medieval period
• Carroll, E. Malcolm. Germany and the great powers, 1866–1914: A study in public opinion and foreign policy (1938) online; 862pp.
• ISBN 978-0-7139-9466-7
• Craig, Gordon. The politics of the Prussian Army 1640–1945 (1955) online
• Fay, Sidney Bradshaw. The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia To 1786 (1937) online
• ISBN 978-0-521-58335-0. online review
• Friedrich, Karin. Brandenburg-Prussia, 1466–1806: The Rise of a Composite State (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011); 157pp. Emphasis on historiography.
• Glees, Anthony. "Albert C. Grzesinski and the politics of Prussia, 1926–1930." English Historical Review 89.353 (1974): 814–834. online
• Haffner, Sebastian (1998). The Rise and Fall of Prussia.
• Hamerow, Theodore S. Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1815–1871 (1958) online
• Hamerow, Theodore S. The social foundations of German unification, 1858–1871 (1969) online
• Henderson, William O. The state and the industrial revolution in Prussia, 1740–1870 (1958) online
• Holborn, Hajo (1982). A History of Modern Germany (3 vol 1959–64); vol 1: The Reformation; vol 2: 1648–1840. Vol. 3: 1840–1945. Princeton University Press.
  ISBN 0691007969
  .
• Horn, David Bayne. Great Britain and Europe in the eighteenth century (1967) covers 1603–1702; pp. 144–177 for Prussia; pp. 178–200 for other Germany; pp. 111–143 for Austria
• Hornung, Erik. "Immigration and the diffusion of technology: The Huguenot diaspora in Prussia." American Economic Review 104.1 (2014): 84–122. online
• Koch, H. W. History of Prussia (1987) online
• Kotulla, Michael. Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495–1934) (Springer, 2008)
  ISBN 978-3-540-48705-0
• Maehl, William Harvey (1979). Germany in Western Civilization.
• Muncy, Lysbeth W. "The Junkers and the Prussian Administration from 1918 to 1939." Review of Politics 9.4 (1947): 482–501. online
• Nipperdey, Thomas. Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck: 1800–1866 (1996). excerpt
• Orlow, Dietrich. Weimar Prussia, 1918–1925: The Unlikely Rock of Democracy (1986) online.
• Orlow, Dietrich. Weimar Prussia, 1925–1933: The Illusion of Strength (1991). online
• Reinhardt, Kurt F. (1961). Germany: 2000 Years. Vol. 2 vols., stress on cultural topics
• Sagarra, Eda. A Social History of Germany, 1648–1914 (1977) online
• Schulze, Hagen, and Philip G. Dwyer. "Democratic Prussia in Weimar Germany, 1919–33." in Modern Prussian History 1830–1947 (Routledge, 2014) pp. 211–229.
• Shennan, M. (1997). The Rise of Brandenburg Prussia.
  ISBN 0415129389
  .
• Taylor, A. J. P. The Course of German History: A Survey of the Development of German History since 1815 (1945) online
• Taylor, A. J. P. Bismarck (1955) online
• Treasure, Geoffrey. The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780 (3rd ed. 2003). pp. 427–462.
• Wheeler, Nicholas C. (October 2011). "The Noble Enterprise of State Building Reconsidering the Rise and Fall of the Modem State in Prussia and Poland". Comparative Politics. 44 (44#1): 21–38.
  doi:10.5129/001041510X13815229366480
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Prussia.

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Prussia.

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Prussia".

• population history
• Preußen-Chronik.de chronology and summaries
• Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation website Archived 18 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine
• Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz (picture archive).
• Foundation for Prussian Palaces and Gardens Berlin-Brandenburg