Zoroaster
Zoroaster𐬰𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬚𐬎𐬱𐬙𐬭𐬀 Zaraθuštra | |
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Zoroaster,
Most scholars, using linguistic and socio-cultural evidence, suggest a dating to somewhere in the second millennium BC.[12][13][2] Zoroastrianism eventually became the official state religion of ancient Iran—particularly during the era of the Achaemenid Empire—and its distant subdivisions from around the 6th century BC until the 7th century AD, when the religion itself began to decline following the Arab-Muslim conquest of Iran.[14] Zoroaster is credited with authorship of the Gathas as well as the Yasna Haptanghaiti, a series of hymns composed in his native Avestan dialect that compose the core of Zoroastrian thinking. Little is known about Zoroaster; most of his life is known only from these scant texts.[9] By any modern standard of historiography, no evidence can place him into a fixed period and the historicization surrounding him may be a part of a trend from before the 10th century AD that historicizes legends and myths.[15]
Name and etymology
Zoroaster's name in his native language, Avestan, was probably Zaraθuštra. His translated name, "Zoroaster", derives from a later (5th century BC) Greek transcription, Zōroastrēs (Ζωροάστρης),[16] as used in Xanthus's Lydiaca (Fragment 32) and in Plato's First Alcibiades (122a1). This form appears subsequently in the Latin Zōroastrēs, and, in later Greek orthographies, as Ζωροάστρις, Zōroastris. The Greek form of the name appears to be based on a phonetic transliteration or semantic substitution of Avestan zaraθ- with the Greek ζωρός, zōros (literally 'undiluted') and the BMAC substrate -uštra with ἄστρον, astron, 'star'.
In Avestan, Zaraθuštra is generally accepted to derive from an Old Iranian *Zaratuštra-; The element half of the name (-uštra-) is thought to be the Indo-Iranian root for 'camel', with the entire name meaning 'he who can manage camels'.[17][c] Reconstructions from later Iranian languages—particularly from the Middle Persian (300 BC) Zardusht,[further explanation needed] which is the form that the name took in the 9th- to 12th-century Zoroastrian texts—suggest that *Zaratuštra- might be a zero-grade form of *Zarantuštra-.[17] Subject then to whether Zaraθuštra derives from *Zarantuštra- or from *Zaratuštra-, several interpretations have been proposed.[d]
If Zarantuštra is the original form, it may mean 'with old/aging camels',
- 'with angry/furious camels': from Avestan *zarant-, 'angry, furious'.[21]
- 'who is driving camels' or 'who is fostering/cherishing camels': related to Avestan zarš-, 'to drag'.[22]
- Mayrhofer (1977) proposed an etymology of 'who is desiring camels' or 'longing for camels' and related to Vedic Sanskrit har-, 'to like', and perhaps (though ambiguous) also to Avestan zara-.[21]
- 'with yellow camels': parallel to Younger Avestan zairi-.[23]
The interpretation of the -θ- (/θ/) in the Avestan zaraθuštra was for a time itself subjected to heated debate because the -θ- is an irregular development: as a rule, *zarat- (a first element that ends in a dental consonant) should have Avestan zarat- or zarat̰- as a development from it. Why this is not so for zaraθuštra has not yet been determined. Notwithstanding the phonetic irregularity, that Avestan zaraθuštra with its -θ- was linguistically an actual form is shown by later attestations reflecting the same basis.[17] All present-day Iranian-language variants of his name derive from the Middle Iranian variants of Zarθošt, which, in turn, all reflect Avestan's fricative -θ-.[citation needed]
In Middle Persian, the name is 𐭦𐭫𐭲𐭥𐭱𐭲, Zardu(x)št,[24] in Parthian Zarhušt,[25] in Manichaean Middle Persian Zrdrwšt,[24] in Early New Persian Zardušt,[24] and in modern (New Persian), the name is زرتشت, Zartosht.
The name is attested in Classical Armenian sources as Zradašt (often with the variant Zradešt).[17] The most important of these testimonies were provided by the Armenian authors Eznik of Kolb, Elishe, and Movses Khorenatsi.[17] The spelling Zradašt was formed through an older form which started with *zur-, a fact which the German Iranologist Friedrich Carl Andreas (1846–1930) used as evidence for a Middle Persian spoken form *Zur(a)dušt.[17] Based on this assumption, Andreas even went so far to form conclusions from this also for the Avestan form of the name.[17] However, the modern Iranologist Rüdiger Schmitt rejects Andreas's assumption, and states that the older form which started with *zur- was just influenced by Armenian zur ('wrong, unjust, idle'), which therefore means that "the name must have been reinterpreted in an anti-Zoroastrian sense by the Armenian Christians".[17] Furthermore, Schmitt adds: "it cannot be excluded, that the (Parthian or) Middle Persian form, which the Armenians took over (Zaradušt or the like), was merely metathesized to pre-Arm. *Zuradašt".[17]
Date
There is no consensus on the dating of Zoroaster. The Avesta gives no direct information about it, while historical sources are conflicting. Some scholars base their date reconstruction on the
Classical scholarship
Classical scholarship in the 6th to 4th century BC believed he existed 6,000 years before
Zoroastrian and Muslim scholarship
Some later pseudo-historical and Zoroastrian sources (the Bundahishn, which references a date "258 years before Alexander") place Zoroaster in the 6th century BC,[e][39] which coincided with the accounts by Ammianus Marcellinus from the 4th century AD. The traditional Zoroastrian date originates in the period immediately following Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BC.[5] The Seleucid rulers who gained power following Alexander's death instituted an "Age of Alexander" as the new calendrical epoch. This did not appeal to the Zoroastrian priesthood who then attempted to establish an "Age of Zoroaster". To do so, they needed to establish when Zoroaster had lived, which they accomplished by (erroneously, according to Mary Boyce some even identified Cyrus with Vishtaspa)[40] counting back the length of successive generations, until they concluded that Zoroaster must have lived "258 years before Alexander".[26][41] This estimate then re-appeared in the 9th- to 12th-century Arabic and Pahlavi texts of Zoroastrian tradition,[f] like the 10th century Al-Masudi who cited a prophecy from a lost Avestan book in which Zoroaster foretold the Empire's destruction in 300 years, but the religion would last for 1,000 years.[43]
Modern scholarship
In modern scholarship, two main approaches can be distinguished: a late dating to the 7th and 6th centuries BC, based on the indigenous Zoroastrian tradition, and an early dating, which places his life more generally in the 15th to 9th centuries BC.[44]
Late date
Some scholars
Early date
Scholars such as
Another possible date from the 9th century BC or before was suggested by Silk Road Seattle, using its own interpretations of Victor H. Mair's writings on the topic.[49] Mair himself guessed that Zoroaster could have been born in the 2nd millennium BC.[50]
Almut Hintze, the British Library, and the European Research Council have dated Zoroaster to roughly 3,500 years ago, in the 2nd millennium BC.[51]
Place
The birthplace of Zoroaster is also unknown, and the language of the Gathas is not similar to the proposed north-western and north-eastern regional dialects of Persia. It is also suggested that he was born in one of the two areas and later lived in the other area.[52]
Yasna 9 and 17 cite the Ditya River in
However, in Yasna 59.18, the zaraθuštrotema, or supreme head of the Zoroastrian priesthood, is said to reside in 'Ragha' (Badakhshan).[9] In the 9th- to 12th-century Middle Persian texts of Zoroastrian tradition, this 'Ragha' and with many other places appear as locations in Western Iran. While the land of Media does not figure at all in the Avesta (the westernmost location noted in scripture is Arachosia), the Būndahišn, or "Primordial Creation", (20.32 and 24.15) puts Ragha in Media (medieval Rai). However, in Avestan, Ragha is simply a toponym meaning 'plain, hillside.'[54]
Apart from these indications in Middle Persian sources that are open to interpretations, there are a number of other sources. The Greek and Latin sources are divided on the birthplace of Zarathustra. There are many Greek accounts of Zarathustra, referred usually as Persian or Perso-Median Zoroaster; Ctesias located him in Bactria, Diodorus Siculus placed him among Ariaspai (in Sistan),[9] Cephalion and Justin suggest east of greater Iran whereas Pliny and Origen suggest west of Iran as his birthplace.[52] Moreover, they have the suggestion that there has been more than one Zoroaster.[55]
On the other hand, in post-Islamic sources
By the late 20th century, most scholars had settled on an origin in eastern
The 2005
Life
Zoroaster is recorded as the son of Pourušaspa of the Spitamans or Spitamids (Avestan spit meaning 'brilliant' or 'white'; some argue that Spitama was a remote progenitor) family,
Zoroaster's training for priesthood probably started very early around seven years of age.
Eventually, at the age of about 42, Zoroaster received the patronage of queen Hutaosa and a ruler named Vishtaspa, an early adherent of Zoroastrianism (possibly from Bactria according to the Shahnameh).[69]
According to the tradition, he lived for many years after Vishtaspa's conversion, managed to establish a faithful community,[70] and married three times. His first two wives bore him three sons, Isat Vâstra, Urvatat Nara, and Hvare Chithra, and three daughters, Freni, Thriti, and Pouruchista. His third wife, Hvōvi, was childless.[71][72] Zoroaster died when he was 77 years and 40 days old.[71] The later Pahlavi sources like Shahnameh instead claim that an obscure conflict with Tuiryas people led to his death, murdered by a karapan (a priest of the old religion) named Brādrēs.[73]
Cypress of Kashmar
The Cypress of Kashmar is a mythical cypress tree of legendary beauty and gargantuan dimensions. It is said to have sprung from a branch brought by Zoroaster from Paradise and to have stood in today's
Influences
In Christianity
In Islam
A number of parallels have been drawn between Zoroastrian teachings and Islam. Such parallels include the evident similarities between Amesha Spenta and the archangel Gabriel, praying five times a day, covering one's head during prayer, and the mention of Thamud and Iram of the Pillars in the Quran. These may also indicate the influence of the Achaemenid Empire on the development of either religion.[78]
The
Muslim scholastic views
Like the Greeks of classical antiquity,
The apostate Zaradusht then eventually made his way to Balkh (present day Afghanistan) where he converted Bishtasb (i.e. Vishtaspa), who in turn compelled his subjects to adopt the religion of the Magians. Recalling other traditions, al-Tabari (I, 681–683)[citation needed] recounts that Zaradusht accompanied a Jewish prophet to Bishtasb/Vishtaspa. Upon their arrival, Zaradusht translated the sage's Hebrew teachings for the king and so convinced him to convert (Tabari also notes that they had previously been Sabis) to the Magian religion.[citation needed]
The 12th-century heresiographer al-Shahrastani describes the Majusiya into three sects, the Kayumarthiya (an otherwise undocumented sect that – per Sharastani – seems to have had a stronger doctrine of Ahriman's "non-reality"), the Zurwaniya and the Zaradushtiya, among which Al-Shahrastani asserts that only the last of the three were properly followers of Zoroaster. As regards the recognition of a prophet, Zoroaster has said: "They ask you as to how should they recognize a prophet and believe him to be true in what he says; tell them what he knows the others do not, and he shall tell you even what lies hidden in your nature; he shall be able to tell you whatever you ask him and he shall perform such things which others cannot perform." (Namah Shat Vakhshur Zartust, .5–7. 50–54)
Ibn Kathir in his commentary of the Quran in Surah Nisa 4:150 indicates Zoroaster might of been a Prophet in Islam, is as follows:
Allah threatens those who disbelieve in Him and in His Messengers, such as the Jews and Christians, who differentiate between Allah and His Messengers regarding faith. They believe in some Prophets and reject others, following their desires, lusts and the practices of their forefathers. They do not follow any proof for such distinction, because there is no such proof. Rather, they follow their lusts and prejudices. The Jews, may Allah curse them, believe in the Prophets, except `Isa and Muhammad, peace be upon them. The Christians believe in the Prophets but reject their Final and Seal, and the most honored among the prophets, Muhammad, peace be upon him. In addition, the Samirah (Samaritans) do not believe in any Prophet after Yuwsha` (Joshua), the successor of Musa bin `Imran. The Majus (Zoroastrians) are said to believe only in a Prophet called Zoroaster, although they do not believe in the law he brought them casting it behind them, and Allah knows best.[79]
[Ibn Kathir, on Quran 4:150]
Ahmadiyya view
The
In Manichaeism
Manichaeism considered Zoroaster to be a figure in a line of prophets of which Mani (216–276) was the culmination.[83] Zoroaster's ethical dualism is—to an extent—incorporated in Manichaeism's doctrine which, unlike Mani's thoughts,[84] viewed the world as being locked in an epic battle between opposing forces of good and evil.[85] Manicheanism also incorporated other elements of Zoroastrian tradition, particularly the names of supernatural beings; however, many of these other Zoroastrian elements are either not part of Zoroaster's own teachings or are used quite differently from how they are used in Zoroastrianism.[86][87]
In the Bahá'í Faith
Zoroaster | |
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Buddha | |
Personal | |
Religion | Zoroastrianism |
Zoroaster appears in the
Philosophy
In the Gathas, Zoroaster sees the human condition as the mental struggle between
The purpose of humankind, like that of all other creation, is to sustain and align itself to aša. For humankind, this occurs through active ethical participation in life, ritual, and the exercise of constructive/good thoughts, words, and deeds.
Elements of Zoroastrian philosophy entered the West through their influence on Judaism and Platonism and have been identified as one of the key early events in the development of philosophy.[90] Among the classic Greek philosophers, Heraclitus is often referred to as inspired by Zoroaster's thinking.[91]
In 2005, the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy ranked Zoroaster as first in the chronology of philosophers.[92][93] Zoroaster's impact lingers today due in part to the system of religious ethics he founded called Mazdayasna. The word Mazdayasna is Avestan and is translated as 'Worship of Wisdom/Mazda' in English. The encyclopedia Natural History (Pliny) claims that Zoroastrians later educated the Greeks who, starting with Pythagoras, used a similar term, philosophy, or "love of wisdom" to describe the search for ultimate truth.[94]
Zoroaster emphasized the freedom of the individual to choose right or wrong and individual responsibility for one's deeds. This personal choice to accept aša and shun druj is one's own decision and not a dictate of Ahura Mazda. For Zoroaster, by thinking good thoughts, saying good words, and doing good deeds (e.g. assisting the needy, doing good works, or conducting good rituals) one increases aša in the world and in themselves, celebrating the divine order, and coming a step closer on the everlasting road to Frashokereti. Thus, mankind are not the slaves or servants of Ahura Mazda, but can make a personal choice to be co-workers, thereby perfecting the world as saoshyants ("world-perfecters") and eventually achieving the status of an Ashavan ("master of Asha").[citation needed]
Iconography
Although a few recent depictions of Zoroaster show him performing some deed of legend, in general the portrayals merely present him in white vestments (which are also worn by present-day Zoroastrian priests). He often is seen holding a collection of unbound rods or twigs, known as a baresman (Avestan; Middle Persian barsom), which is generally considered to be another symbol of priesthood, or with a book in hand, which may be interpreted to be the Avesta. Alternatively, he appears with a mace, the varza—usually stylized as a steel rod crowned by a bull's head—that priests carry in their installation ceremony. In other depictions he appears with a raised hand and thoughtfully lifted finger, as if to make a point.[citation needed]
Zoroaster is rarely depicted as looking directly at the viewer; instead, he appears to be looking slightly upwards, as if beseeching. Zoroaster is almost always depicted with a beard along with other factors bearing similarities to 19th-century portraits of Jesus.[95]
A common variant of the Zoroaster images derives from a Sassanid-era rock-face carving. In this depiction at Taq-e Bostan, a figure is seen to preside over the coronation of Ardashir I or II. The figure is standing on a lotus, with a baresman in hand and with a gloriole around his head. Until the 1920s, this figure was commonly thought to be a depiction of Zoroaster, but in recent years is more commonly interpreted to be a depiction of Mithra.
Western references to Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism
In classical antiquity
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The Greeks—in the
Zoroaster has also been described as a sorcerer-astrologer – the creator of both magic and astrology. Deriving from that image, and reinforcing it, was a "mass of literature" attributed to him and that circulated the
The language of that literature was predominantly
Among the named works attributed to "Zoroaster" is a treatise On Nature (Peri physeos), which appears to have originally constituted four volumes (i.e. papyrus rolls). The framework is a retelling of Plato's
Association with astrology according to Roger Beck, were based on his Babylonian origin, and Zoroaster's Greek name was identified at first with star-worshiping (astrothytes, 'star sacrificer") and, with the Zo-, even as the 'living' star.[107][verification needed] Later, an even more elaborate mythoetymology evolved: Zoroaster died by the living (zo-) flux (ro-) of fire from the star (astr-) which he himself had invoked, and even, that the stars killed him in revenge for having been restrained by him.[107][verification needed]
The alternate Greek name for Zoroaster was Zaratras
While the division along the lines of Zoroaster/astrology and Ostanes/magic is an "oversimplification, the descriptions do at least indicate what the works are not"; they were not expressions of Zoroastrian doctrine, they were not even expressions of what the Greeks and Romans "imagined the doctrines of Zoroastrianism to have been".[101] The assembled fragments do not even show noticeable commonality of outlook and teaching among the several authors who wrote under each name.[112]
Almost all Zoroastrian pseudepigrapha is now lost, and of the attested texts—with only one exception—only fragments have survived. Pliny's 2nd- or 3rd-century attribution of "two million lines" to Zoroaster suggest that (even if exaggeration and duplicates are taken into consideration) a formidable pseudepigraphic corpus once existed at the Library of Alexandria. This corpus can safely be assumed to be pseudepigrapha because no one before Pliny refers to literature by "Zoroaster",[113] and on the authority of the 2nd-century Galen of Pergamon and from a 6th-century commentator on Aristotle it is known that the acquisition policies of well-endowed royal libraries created a market for fabricating manuscripts of famous and ancient authors.[113]
The exception to the fragmentary evidence (i.e. reiteration of passages in works of other authors) is a complete Coptic
Another work circulating under the name of "Zoroaster" was the Asteroskopita (or Apotelesmatika), and which ran to five volumes (i.e. papyrus rolls). The title and fragments suggest that it was an astrological handbook, "albeit a very varied one, for the making of predictions."[101] A third text attributed to Zoroaster is On Virtue of Stones (Peri lithon timion), of which nothing is known other than its extent (one volume) and that pseudo-Zoroaster 'sang' it (from which Cumont and Bidez[who?] conclude that it was in verse). Numerous other fragments preserved in the works of other authors are attributed to "Zoroaster", but the titles of those books are not mentioned.[citation needed]
These pseudepigraphic texts aside, some authors did draw on a few genuinely Zoroastrian ideas. The Oracles of Hystaspes, by "
In the modern era
This section needs additional citations for verification. (March 2017) |
An early reference to Zoroaster in English literature occur in the writings of the physician-philosopher Sir Thomas Browne who asserted in his Religio Medici (1643):
I believe, besides Zoroaster, there were divers[h] that writ before Moses, who notwithstanding have suffered the common fate of time.
— Religio Medici, Part 1, Section 23[119]
In
In his seminal work Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1885), the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche uses the native Iranian name Zarathustra, which has a significant meaning[i] as he had used the familiar Greek-Latin name in his earlier works.[121] It is believed that Nietzsche invents a characterization of Zarathustra as the mouthpiece for Nietzsche's own ideas about morality.[j]
Notable influence on modern Western culture
The German composer
A sculpture of Zoroaster by Edward Clark Potter, representing ancient Persian judicial wisdom and dating to 1896, towers over the Appellate Division Courthouse of New York State at East 25th Street and Madison Avenue in Manhattan.[124][125][126] A sculpture of Zoroaster appears with other prominent religious figures on the south side of the exterior of Rockefeller Memorial Chapel on the campus of the University of Chicago.[who?][when?][127]
See also
- List of founders of religious traditions
- List of unsolved deaths
- Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None, a philosophical novel by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche.
- Zartosht Bahram e Pazhdo, author of a Persian epic biography on Zoroaster.
- Zoroaster and the Mount Savalan
- Zoroastre, an opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau
Notes
- : زەردەشت, romanized: Zerdeşt
- Avestan: 𐬰𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬚𐬎𐬱𐬙𐬭𐬀, romanized: Zaraθuštra. Also known as Zarathushtra Spitama, or Ashu Zarathushtra
- ^ Originally proposed by Burnouf[18]
- ^ For refutation of these and other proposals, see Humbach, 1991.[19]
- ^ "258 years before Alexander" is only superficially precise.[33] It has been suggested that this "traditional date" is an adoption of some date from foreign sources, from the Greeks[34] or the Babylonians[35] for example, which the priesthood then reinterpreted. A simpler explanation is that the priests subtracted 42 (the age at which Zoroaster is said to have converted Vistaspa) from the round figure of 300.[36][37][38]
- ^ The Bundahishn computes "200 and some years" (GBd xxxvi.9) or "284 years" (IBd xxxiv.9). That '258 years' was the generally accepted figure is however noted by al-Biruni and al-Masudi, with the latter specifically stating (in 943/944 AD) that "the Magians count a period of two hundred and fifty-eight years between their prophet and Alexander."[42][33]
- ^ From a letter of the Universal House of Justice, Department of the Secretariat, May 13, 1979, to Gayle Woolson published in Hornby (1983), p. 501.
- ^ meaning "various"[118]
- ^ By choosing the name of 'Zarathustra' as prophet of his philosophy, as he has expressed clearly, he followed the paradoxical aim of paying homage to the original Iranian prophet and reversing his teachings at the same time. The original Zoroastrian world view interprets being essentially on a moralistic basis and depicts the world as an arena for the struggle of the two fundamentals of being, Good and Evil, represented in two antagonistic divine figures.[121] On the contrary, Nietzsche wants his philosophy to be Beyond Good and Evil.
References
- ^ Stausberg 2002, vol. I, pp. 58–59.
- ^ a b c d Lincoln 1991, pp. 149–150: "At present, the majority opinion among scholars probably inclines toward the end of the second millennium or the beginning of the first, although there are still those who hold for a date in the seventh century."
- ^ a b Boyce 1996, pp. 3, 189–191.
- ^ a b Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, p. 61.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Nigosian 1993, pp. 15–16
- ^ a b c d e Shahbazi 1977, pp. 25–35
- ^ a b Malandra 2005, : "Controversy over Zaraθuštra's date has been an embarrassment of long standing to Zoroastrian studies. If anything approaching a consensus exists, it is that he lived ca. 1000 BCE give or take a century or so [...]".
- ^ a b Kellens 2011, : "In the last ten years a general consensus has gradually emerged in favor of placing the Gāthās around 1000 BCE [...]".
- ^ a b c d West 2010, p. 4
- ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 3–4.
- ^ "How Zoroastrianism influenced the Western world". 2017.
- ^ a b Boyce 1996, p. 3
- ^ a b c West 2010, pp. 4–8
- ^ a b Boyce 2001, pp. 1–3
- ^ Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, pp. 60–61.
- ^ a b Schlerath 1977, pp. 133–135
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Schmitt 2002.
- ^ Burnouf 1833, p. 13.
- ^ Humbach 1991, p. I.18.
- ^ Paul Horn, Grundriß der neupersischen Etymologie, Strassburg 1893
- ^ a b Mayrhofer 1977, pp. 43–53.
- ^ Bailey 1953, pp. 40–42.
- ^ Markwart 1930, pp. 7ff.
- ^ ISBN 0-19-713559-5. Archived from the original(PDF) on 3 December 2012. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
- ^ Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond (2004). Dictionary Of Manichean Middle Persian & Parthian.
- ^ a b c d e f West 2013, pp. 89–109
- ^ Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, p. 441
- ^ Boyce 1982, p. 260
- ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 285–292
- ^ ISBN 9781910589465.
- ^ West 2010, p. 8
- ^ Boyce 1982, p. 261
- ^ a b Shahbazi 1977, p. 26.
- ^ Kingsley 1990, pp. 245–265.
- ^ Shahbazi 1977, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Jackson 1896.
- ^ Boyce 1996, p. [page needed].
- ^ Henning, Western Response.[full citation needed]
- ^ Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, p. 9
- ^ Boyce 1982, p. 68
- ^ Shahbazi 1977, pp. 25–26
- ^ Jackson 1899, p. 162.
- ^ a b West 2010, p. 6
- ^ Humbach 1991, chap. "The date of Zarathustra".
- ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5
- ^ Boyce 1982, pp. 1–7
- ^ West 2010, p. 18
- ^ Stausberg 2008, p. 572
- ^ "Zoroastrianism". Silk Road Seattle. University of Washington. 7 May 2002. Retrieved 1 March 2023.
- ^ Mair 1990, p. 34.
- ^ "An introduction to Zoroastrianism". Khan Academy. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
- ^ a b c d Nigosian 1993, pp. 17–18
- ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 190–191
- ^ Gershevitch 1964, pp. 36–37.
- ISBN 1-85506-828-1.
- ^ cf. Boyce 1996, pp. 2–26.
- ^ cf. Gronke 1993, pp. 59–60.
- ^ Frye 1992, p. 8.
- ^ Khlopin 1992, pp. 107–110.
- ^ Sarianidi 1987, p. 54.
- ^ Boyce 1996, p. 1.
- ^ Malandra 2005
- ^ West 2010, p. 17
- ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 182–183
- ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 183
- ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 184
- ^ West 2010, pp. 19–20
- ^ West 2010, p. 24
- ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 187
- ^ West 2010, p. 9
- ^ a b Boyce 1996, pp. 188
- ^ West 2010, p. 31
- ^ Boyce 1996, pp. 192
- ^ "The Cypress of Kashmar and Zoroaster". www.zoroastrian.org.uk. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
- ^ Lee Lawrence. (3 September 2011). "A Mysterious Stranger in China". The Wall Street Journal. Accessed on 31 August 2016.
- ^ Mungello 1989:144 and Mungello 1989:182
- ^ Mungello 1989:321
- ^ a b Hinnel, J (1997), The Penguin Dictionary of Religion, Penguin Books UK
- ^ https://quran.com/en/4:150/tafsirs/en-tafsir-maarif-ul-quran/>
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
tafsir1
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
tafsir2
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "Zoroastrianism". www.alislam.org.
- ^ Widengren 1961, p. 76.
- ^ Amin Maalouf 1991, The Gardens of Light
- ^ Widengren 1961, pp. 43–45.
- ^ Widengren 1961, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Zaehner 1972, p. 21.
- ^ Taherzadeh 1976, p. 3.
- ^ Buck 1998.
- ^ Blackburn 1994, p. 405.
- ^ Blackburn 2005, p. 409.
- ^ Frankfort, H., Frankfort, H. A. G., Wilson, J. A., & Jacobsen, T. (1964). Before Philosophy. Penguin, Harmondsworth.
- ^ Jones, W.H.S. (1963). "Pliny Natural History Vol 8; Book XXX". Heinemann. Archived from the original on 1 January 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
- ^ Stausberg 2002, vol. I, p. 58.
- ^ See Plutarch's Isis and Osiris 46-7, Diogenes Laertius 1.6–9, and Agathias 2.23-5.
- ^ a b Beck 1991, p. 525.
- ^ ISBN 9004052410. Retrieved 19 March 2017.
- ^ a b Beck 1991, p. 491.
- ^ Beck 2003, para. 4.
- ^ a b c d Beck 1991, p. 493.
- ^ Nock 1929, p. 111.
- ^ Livingstone 2002, pp. 144–145.
- ^ Livingstone 2002, p. 147.
- ^ a b Beck 2003, para. 7.
- ^ Beck 1991, p. 522.
- ^ a b Beck 1991, p. 523.
- ^ Cf. Agathias 2.23–5 and Clement's Stromata I.15.[non-primary source needed]
- ^ See Porphyry's Life of Pythagoras 12, Alexander Polyhistor apud Clement's Stromata I.15, Diodorus of Eritrea and Aristoxenus apud Hippolytus VI32.2, for the primary sources.[non-primary source needed]
- Lydus, On the Months, II.4.[non-primary source needed]
- ^ Lucian of Samosata, Mennipus 6.[non-primary source needed]
- ^ a b Beck 1991, p. 495.
- ^ a b Beck 1991, p. 526.
- ^ Sieber 1973, p. 234.
- ^ Pliny, VII, I.[non-primary source needed]
- ^ Pliny, VII, XV.[non-primary source needed]
- ^ Plutarch's Isis and Osiris, 46–7.[non-primary source needed]
- ^ "DIVERS Definition & Usage Examples". Dictionary.com.
- ^ Religio Medici Part 1 Section 23
- ^ "Klein Zaches Genannt Zinnober". Michaelhaldane.com. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ a b Ashouri 2003.
- ^ Nietzsche/Ludovici 1911, p. 133
- ^ p. 45 of the Project Gutenberg EBook.
- ^ "Edward Clark Potter". New York Public Library. The New York Public Library.
- ^ "Tall Statue of Zoroaster in New York" ایرون دات کام: عکس ها: مجسّمهٔ تمام قّدِ زرتشت در نیویورک (in Persian). Iroon.com. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ "Pages 9–12 of" (PDF).
- ^ "Rockefeller Memorial Chapel | the University of Chicago". Archived from the original on 11 January 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
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External links
- Zoroaster at Encyclopædia Iranica
- Zoroaster at Encyclopædia Britannica
- Works by or about Zoroaster at Internet Archive
- Works by Zoroaster at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)