Pteridium aquilinum
Pteridium aquilinum | |
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Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Division: | Polypodiophyta |
Class: | Polypodiopsida |
Order: | Polypodiales |
Family: | Dennstaedtiaceae |
Genus: | Pteridium |
Species: | P. aquilinum
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Binomial name | |
Pteridium aquilinum |
Pteridium aquilinum, commonly called bracken, brake, pasture brake, common bracken, and also known as eagle fern, is a species of fern occurring in temperate and subtropical regions in both hemispheres. Originally native to Eurasia and North America, the extreme lightness of its spores has led to it achieving a cosmopolitan distribution.
Description
Common bracken is a
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Amphicribral vascular bundle of a common bracken rhizome
Reproduction
Sporangia are formed in sori on the underside of the frond.[5] They are arranged in narrow brown bands, and form spores over July, August and September.[6]
Taxonomy
It was traditionally treated as the sole species in the genus Pteridium (brackens); however, authorities have split and recognised up to 11 species in the genus. It was placed in the genus Pteridium by Friedrich Adalbert Maximilian Kuhn in 1879.[7] Genetic analysis of Pteridium from 100 different locations worldwide has revealed two distinct species and despite the common name "bracken" being shared, the "southern" species is Pteridium esculentum. Though the southern P. esculentum shows little genetic diversity among physically isolated locations, P. aquilinum has distinct groups at the continental scale. However, evidence of long-distance gene flow was found in samples taken from Hawaii that presented elements of both North American and Asian subspecies of P. aquilinum.[8]
Etymology
Common bracken was first described as Pteris aquilina by
Distribution and habitat
Bracken is native to Europe, Eastern Asia and North America,
Bracken grows in pastures, deciduous and coniferous woodlands, and hillsides. It prefers acidic soils.[6]
An adaptable plant, bracken readily colonises disturbed areas. It can even be aggressive in countries where it is native, such as England, where it has invaded heather (
Toxicity
The plant contains the carcinogenic compound ptaquiloside.[13] Ptaquiloside is known to cause hemorrhagic diseases in ruminants, tumors and hematological problems in non-ruminants, and is correlated with esophageal and gastric cancer in humans.[14][15] Chronic bracken consumption is also associated with upper digestive tract (UDT) squamous cell carcinomas in cattle (ruminants)—with the most aggressive and serious tumors located in the caudal (lower) UDT.[16]
High
However, ptaquiloside is water-soluble, and is reduced by soaking bracken in cool water.[20] Korean and Japanese cooks have traditionally soaked the shoots in water and ash to detoxify the plant before eating.[21] Ptaquiloside also degenerates at room temperature, which explains why the rat studies were done with the toxin stored at −20 °C (−4 °F).[20] At boiling temperature, the carcinogen denatures almost completely.[20] Salt and baking soda also help with volatilizing the chemical.[20]
It has been suggested that selenium supplementation can prevent as well as reverse the immunotoxic effects induced by ptaquiloside from Pteridium aquilinum.[22]
Uses
Food
Despite its established toxicity, P. aquilinum's global distribution—it is the fifth most widely distributed common weed species in the world—means that it has a long history of being consumed in many parts of the world.[14] The toxicity and wide distribution has led to variation in cultural attitudes towards the consumption of the plant. In the United Kingdom where P. aquilinum is extremely successful, the rhizome was once consumed during and after World War I.[23] However the Royal Horticultural Society now explicitly advises against its consumption due to toxicity.[24]
Bracken is a widely eaten vegetable in Korea, Japan, Russian Far East, and parts of China where they have historically been some of the most important wild vegetables consumed.[20] Populations of these countries where bracken is traditionally consumed have been able to access bracken in new locations after immigrating due to P. aquilinum's global ubiquity.
In Korea, bracken is known as gosari. It is soaked, parboiled, and stir-fried, and often eaten as a side dish (namul).[25] It is also a classic ingredient of bibimbap.[26]
In Japan, bracken is known as warabi (蕨, ワラビ), and a jelly-like starch made from it is a key ingredient for the chilled dessert warabimochi. As a type of sansai (mountain vegetables), young bracken shoots are steamed, boiled, or cooked in soups. The shoots are also preserved in salt, sake, or miso.[21]
Bracken shoots have been used to produce beer in Siberia, and among indigenous peoples of North America.[21]
The rhizome can be ground into flour to make bread. In the Canary Islands, the rhizome was historically used to make a porridge called gofio.[21]
Bracken leaves are used in the
Young fronds of the bracken can be harvested easily and should be cooked for 30 to 60 minutes. Mature bracken is toxic due to thiaminase and can be destroyed by cooking. Should be avoided if not skilled enough to prepare it.[27]
Pharmacology
P. aquilinum has been investigated for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties.[28]
References
- ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0 Pteridium aquilinum Bracken Fern". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- ^ Christenhusz, M., Bento Elias, R., Dyer, R., Ivanenko, Y., Rouhan, G., Rumsey, F. & Väre, H. 2017. Pteridium aquilinum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T73691742A85427115. Downloaded on 01 July 2021.
- ISBN 0-521-04656-4.
- ^ "SCDNR - Species: Bracken Fern". www.dnr.sc.gov. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-85918-478-3.
- ^ ISBN 0486205045.
- ^ Thomson, John A. (2004). "Towards a taxonomic revision of Pteridium (Dennstaedtiaceae)". Telopea. 10 (4): 793–803.
- PMID 31545874.
- ^ radix oblique dissecta refert aliquatenus aquilam imperialem
- ISBN 978-0-8493-2332-4. Retrieved 30 June 2010.
- ^ ISSN 0066-4162.
- .
- PMID 22143989.
- ^ PMID 19457786.
- PMID 8117827.
- PMID 20542519.
- PMID 5158492.
- PMID 11146454.
- PMID 25292020.
- ^ a b c d e Shaw, Hank (30 June 2011). "The Bracken Fern: A Natural Born Killer?". The Atlantic. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
- ^ ISBN 0415927463.
- PMID 21112370.
- S2CID 85114338.
- ^ "Bracken / RHS Gardening". www.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
- ^ Mishan, Ligaya (16 February 2017). "At Cafe Lily, the Korean-Uzbek Menu Evokes a Past Exodus". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
- ^ Fontella, Amelia Cook (16 February 2017). "I brake for fernbrake". Isthmus. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
- ISBN 0-03-007701-X.)
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: CS1 maint: date and year (link - S2CID 8419285.