Pterois
Pterois | |
---|---|
Pterois volitans | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Actinopterygii |
Order: | Scorpaeniformes |
Family: | Scorpaenidae |
Tribe: | Pteroini |
Genus: | Pterois Oken, 1817[1] |
Type species | |
Synonyms[1] | |
Pterois is a
Taxonomy
Pterois was described as a genus in 1817 by German naturalist, botanist, biologist, and ornithologist Lorenz Oken. In 1856 the French naturalist Eugène Anselme Sébastien Léon Desmarest designated Scorpaena volitans, which had been named by Bloch in 1787 and which was the same as Linnaeus's 1758 Gasterosteus volitans, as the type species of the genus.[1][8][2] This genus is classified within the tribe Pteroini of the subfamily Scorpaeninae within the family Scorpaenidae.[9] The genus name Pterois is based on Georges Cuvier's 1816 French name, “Les Pterois”, meaning "fins" which is an allusion to the high dorsal and long pectoral fins.[10]
Species
Currently, 12 recognized species are in this genus:
Image | Scientific name | Common name | Distribution |
---|---|---|---|
Pterois andover (G. R. Allen & Erdmann , 2008) |
Andover lionfish | Indonesia and Papua New Guinea and ranges as far as Sabah, Malaysia, and the Philippines | |
Pterois antennata (Bloch, 1787) | Spot-fin lionfish | tropical Indian and Western Pacific Oceans | |
Pterois brevipectoralis (Mandritsa, 2002) | Western Indian Ocean | ||
Pterois cincta (Rüppell, 1838) | Red Sea lionfish[11] | Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, Red Sea | |
, 1843) | Luna lionfish | Western Pacific Ocean | |
Pterois miles (J. W. Bennett, 1828) | Devil firefish | Indian Ocean, from the Red Sea, to South Africa, and to Indonesia | |
J. L. B. Smith , 1957) |
African lionfish, frill-fin turkeyfish | tropical Indian Ocean and the Western Pacific | |
Pterois paucispinula (Matsunuma & Motomura, 2014)[12] | India to northern Australia (Timor Sea); north to southern Japan; eastward to Wallis and Futuna Islands | ||
Pterois radiata (G. Cuvier, 1829) | Clear-fin lionfish[11] | Red Sea to Sodwana Bay, South Africa and to the Society Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to New Caledonia | |
Pterois russelii (E. T. Bennett, 1831) | Plaintail turkeyfish, soldier lionfish, or Russell's lionfish | Persian Gulf and East Africa to New Guinea, south to Western Australia | |
Pterois sphex (D. S. Jordan & Evermann, 1903) | Hawaiian turkeyfish | Hawaii | |
) | Red lionfish | Indo-Pacific region, Western Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea |
Molecular studies and morphological data have indicated that P. lunulata is a
Description
According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “lionfish have distinctive brown or maroon, and white stripes or bands covering the head and body. They have fleshy tentacles above their eyes and below the mouth; fan-like pectoral fins; long, separated dorsal spines; 13 dorsal spines; 10-11 dorsal soft rays; 3 anal spines; and 6-7 anal soft rays. An adult lionfish can grow as large as 18 inches.”[14]
Juvenile lionfish have a unique tentacle located above their eye sockets that varies in phenotype between species.[15] The evolution of this tentacle is suggested to serve to continually attract new prey; studies also suggest it plays a role in sexual selection.[15]
Ecology and behavior
Pterois species can live from 5 to 15 years and have complex courtship and mating behaviors.[16] Females frequently release two mucus-filled egg clusters, which can contain as many as 15,000 eggs.[16][17]
All species are aposematic; they have conspicuous coloration with boldly contrasting stripes and wide fans of projecting spines, advertising their ability to defend themselves.[18]
Prey
Pterois prey mostly on small fish, invertebrates, and mollusks, with up to six different species of prey found in the gastrointestinal tracts of some specimens. Lionfish feed most actively in the morning.
Predators and parasites
Aside from instances of larger lionfish individuals engaging in
Parasites of lionfish have rarely been observed, and are assumed to be infrequent. They include
Interaction with humans
Lionfish are known for their
Lionfish are edible if prepared correctly.[35][36]
Native range and habitat
The lionfish is native to the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific Ocean. They can be found around the seaward edge of shallow coral reefs, lagoons, rocky substrates, and on mesophotic reefs, and can live in areas of varying salinity, temperature, and depth.
Invasive introduction and range
Western tropical Atlantic
Two of the 12 species of Pterois, the red lionfish (P. volitans) and the common lionfish (P. miles), have established themselves as significant invasive species off the East Coast of the United States and in the Caribbean. About 93% of the invasive population in the Western Atlantic is P. volitans.[43]
The red lionfish is found off the East Coast and Gulf Coast of the United States and in the Caribbean Sea, and was likely first introduced off the Florida coast by the early to mid-1980s.
Adult lionfish specimens are now found along the United States East Coast from
Pterois species are known for devouring many other aquarium fishes,[48] unusual in that they are among the few fish species to successfully establish populations in open marine systems.[55]
Extreme temperatures present geographical constraints in the distribution of aquatic species,[56] indicating temperature tolerance plays a role in the lionfish's survival, reproduction, and range of distribution.[49] The abrupt differences in water temperatures north and south of Cape Hatteras directly correlate with the abundance and distribution of Pterois.[56] Pterois expanded along the southeastern coast of the United States and occupied thermal-appropriate zones within 10 years,[56] and the shoreward expansion of this thermally appropriate habitat is expected in coming decades as winter water temperatures warm in response to anthropogenic climate change.[57] Although the timeline of observations points to the east coast of Florida as the initial source of the western Atlantic invasion, the relationship of the United States East Coast and Bahamian lionfish invasion is uncertain.[58] Lionfish can tolerate a minimum salinity of 5 ppt (0.5%) and even withstand pulses of fresh water, which means they can also be found in estuaries of freshwater rivers.[59]
The lionfish invasion is considered to be one of the most serious recent threats to Caribbean and Florida coral reef ecosystems. To help address the pervasive problem, in 2015, the NOAA partnered with the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute to set up a lionfish portal to provide scientifically accurate information on the invasion and its impacts.[60] The lionfish web portal[61] is aimed at all those involved and affected, including coastal managers, educators, and the public, and the portal was designed as a source of training videos, fact sheets, examples of management plans, and guidelines for monitoring. The web portal draws on the expertise of NOAA's own scientists, as well as that of other scientists and policy makers from academia or NGOs, and managers.[citation needed]
Mediterranean
Lionfish have also established themselves in parts of the
Long-term effects of invasion
Lionfish have successfully pioneered the coastal waters of the Atlantic in less than a decade, and pose a major threat to reef ecological systems in these areas. A study comparing their abundance from Florida to North Carolina with several species of groupers found they were second only to the native
Lionfish could be reducing Atlantic reef diversity by up to 80%.[39] In July 2011, lionfish were reported for the first time in the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary off the coast of Louisiana.[67] Sanctuary officials said they believe the species will be a permanent fixture, but hope to monitor and possibly limit their presence.[citation needed]
Since lionfish thrive so well in the Atlantic and the Caribbean due to nutrient-rich waters and lack of predators, the species has spread tremendously. A single lionfish, located on a reef, reduced young juvenile reef fish populations by 79%.[68]
Control and eradication efforts
Red lionfish are an invasive species, yet relatively little is known about them. NOAA research foci include investigating biotechnical solutions for control of the population, and understanding how the larvae are dispersed.[69] Another important area of study is what controls the population in its native area. Researchers hope to discover what moderates lionfish populations in the Indo-Pacific and apply this information to control the invasive populations, without introducing additional invasive species.[citation needed]
Two new trap designs have been introduced to help with deep-water control of the lionfish. The traps are low and vertical and remain open the entire time of deployment. The vertical relief of the trap attracts lionfish, which makes catching them easier. These new traps are good for catching lionfish without affecting the native species that are ecologically, recreationally, and commercially important to the surrounding areas. These traps are more beneficial than older traps because they limit the potential of catching noninvasive creatures, they have bait that is only appealing to lionfish, they guarantee a catch, and they are easy to transport.[70]
Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) are being developed to help hunt the lionfish. The Reefsweeper ROV uses a harpoon gun to snag its target. The vehicle is able to hunt fish that may not otherwise be obtainable through human intervention alone. [71]
Rigorous and repeated removal of lionfish from invaded waters could potentially control the exponential expansion of the lionfish in invaded waters.[4] A 2010 study showed effective maintenance would require the monthly harvest of at least 27% of the adult population. Because lionfish are able to reproduce monthly, this effort must be maintained throughout the entire year.[72]
To accomplish even these numbers seems unlikely, but as populations of lionfish continue to grow throughout the Caribbean and Western Atlantic, actions are being taken to attempt to control the quickly growing numbers. In November 2010, for the first time the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary began licensing divers to kill lionfish inside the sanctuary in an attempt to eradicate the fish.[73]
Conservation groups and community organizations in the Eastern United States have organized hunting expeditions for Pterois such as the Environment Education Foundation's 'lionfish derby' held annually in Florida.[54] Divemasters from Cozumel to the Honduran Bay Islands and at Reef Conservation International which operates in the Sapodilla Cayes Marine Reserve off Punta Gorda, Belize, now routinely spear them during dives.[citation needed] While diver culling removes lionfish from shallow reefs reducing their densities,[74] lionfish have widely been reported on mesophotic coral ecosystems (reefs from 30 to 150 m) in the western Atlantic[75] and even in deep-sea habitats (greater than 200 m depth).[41] Recent studies have suggested that the effects of culling are likely to be depth-specific, and so have limited impacts on these deeper reef populations.[76] Therefore, other approaches such as trapping are advocated for removing lionfish from deeper reef habitats.[41][75][76][77]
Long-term culling has also been recorded to cause behavior changes in lionfish populations. For example, in the Bahamas, lionfish on heavily culled reefs have become more wary of divers and hide more within the reef structure during the day when culling occurs.[78] Similar lionfish responses to divers have been observed when comparing culled sites and sites without culling in Honduras, including altered lionfish behaviour on reefs too deep for regular culling, but adjacent to heavily culled sites potentially implying movement of individuals between depths.[76]
While culling by marine protection agencies and volunteer divers is an important element of control efforts, development of market-based approaches, which create commercial incentives for removals, has been seen as a means to sustain control efforts. The foremost of these market approaches is the promotion of lionfish as a food item.[79][80] Another is the use of lionfish spines, fins, and tails for jewelry and other decorative items. Lionfish jewelry production initiatives are underway in Belize, the Bahamas,[81] St. Vincent, and the Grenadines.
In 2014 at Jardines de la Reina National Marine Park in Cuba, a diver experimented with spearing and feeding lionfish to sharks in an effort to teach them to seek out the fish as prey.[82] By 2016, Cuba was finding it more effective to fish for lionfish as food.[83]
"Lionfish as Food" campaign
In 2010, NOAA (which also encourages people to report lionfish sightings, to help track lionfish population dispersal)
When properly filleted, the naturally venomous fish is safe to eat. Some concern exists about the risk of
Another initiative is centered around the production of leather from lionfish hides. It seeks to establish a production chain and market for high-quality leather produced from the hides. The goal is to control invasive lionfish populations while providing economic benefits to local fishing communities.[90]
See also
- Dendrochirus, the dwarf lionfishes
- List of venomous animals
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