Pueblo Revolt
Pueblo Revolt | |||||||
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Part of Spanish colonization of the Americas | |||||||
Pueblo Rebellion, Loren Mozley (1936) | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Spain |
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Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Antonio de Otermín |
Popé See list below for others | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
400, including civilians | Over 600 |
The Pueblo Revolt of 1680, also known as Popé's Rebellion or Po'pay's Rebellion, was an uprising of most of the indigenous
Background
For more than 100 years beginning in 1540, the Pueblo people of present-day New Mexico were subjected to successive waves of soldiers, missionaries, and settlers. These encounters, referred to as entradas (incursions), were characterized by violent confrontations between Spanish colonists and Pueblo peoples. The Tiguex War, fought in the winter of 1540–41 by the expedition of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado against the twelve or thirteen pueblos of Tiwa Native Americans, was particularly destructive to Pueblo and Spanish relations.
In 1598
Spanish colonial policies in the 1500s regarding the humane treatment of native citizens were often ignored on the northern frontier. With the establishment of the first permanent colonial settlement in 1598, the Pueblos were forced to provide tribute to the colonists in the form of labor, ground corn, and textiles. Encomiendas were soon established by colonists along the Rio Grande, restricting Pueblo access to fertile farmlands and water supplies and placing a heavy burden upon Pueblo labor.[6] Especially egregious to the Pueblo was the assault on their traditional religion. Franciscan priests established theocracies in many of the Pueblo villages. In 1608, when it looked as though Spain might abandon the province, the Franciscans baptized seven thousand Pueblos to try to convince the Crown otherwise.[7] Although the Franciscans initially tolerated manifestations of the old religion as long as the Puebloans attended mass and maintained a public veneer of Catholicism, Fray Alonso de Posada (in New Mexico 1656–1665) outlawed Kachina dances by the Pueblo people and ordered the missionaries to seize and burn their masks, prayer sticks, and effigies.[8] The Franciscan missionaries also forbade the use of entheogenic substances in the traditional religious ceremonies of the Pueblo. Some Spanish officials, such as Nicolás de Aguilar, who attempted to curb the power of the Franciscans were charged with heresy and tried before the Inquisition.[9] The Pueblos by and large resented the missionaries, with the Hopis in particular referring to Spanish priests as tūtáachi, "dictator and demanding person."[10]
In the 1670s drought swept the region, causing a famine among the Pueblo and increased raids by the
Rebellion
Following his release,
Each morning the Pueblo leadership was to untie one knot from the cord, and when the last knot was untied, that would be the signal for them to rise against the Spaniards in unison. On August 9, however, the Spaniards were warned of the impending revolt by southern Tiwa leaders and they captured two
Popé then ordered the revolt to begin a day early. The
Popé's land
The retreat of the Spaniards left New Mexico in the power of the Puebloans.[25] Popé was a mysterious figure in the history of the southwest as there are many tales among the Puebloans of what happened to him after the revolt. Later testimony to the Spanish by the Pueblo people was probably colored by anti-Popé sentiments and a desire to tell the Spanish what they wanted to hear.[citation needed]
Apparently, Popé and his two lieutenants, Alonso Catiti from Santo Domingo and Luis Tupatu from Picuris, traveled from town to town ordering a return "to the state of their antiquity." All crosses, churches, and Christian images were to be destroyed. The people were ordered to cleanse themselves in ritual baths, to use their Puebloan names, and to destroy all vestiges of the Roman Catholic religion and Spanish culture, including Spanish livestock and fruit trees. Popé, it was said, forbade the planting of wheat and barley and commanded those natives who had been married according to the rites of the Catholic Church to dismiss their wives and to take others after the old native tradition.[26]
The Puebloans had no tradition of political unity. Popé was a man of trust and strict policy. Therefore, each pueblo was self-governing, and some, or all, apparently resisted Popé's demands for a return to a pre-Spanish existence. The paradise Popé had promised when the Spanish were expelled did not materialize. A drought continued, destroying Puebloan crops, and the raids by Apache and Navajo increased. Initially, however, the Puebloans were united in their objective of preventing a return of the Spanish.[27]
Popé was deposed as the leader of the Puebloans about a year after the revolt and disappears from history.[28] He is believed to have died shortly before the Spanish reconquest in 1692.[29]
Spanish attempt to return
In November 1681,
Some of the Isleta later returned to New Mexico, but others remained in Paso del Norte, living in the Ysleta del Sur Pueblo. The Piro also moved to Paso del Norte to live among the Spaniards, eventually forming part of the Piro, Manso, and Tiwa tribe.[31]
The Spanish were never able to re-convince some Puebloans to join Santa Fe de Nuevo México, and the Spanish often returned seeking peace instead of reconquest. For example, the Hopi remained free of any Spanish attempt at reconquest; though they did, at several non-violent attempts, try for unsuccessful peace treaties and unsuccessful trade agreements.[32] For some Puebloans, the Revolt was a success in its objective to drive away Spanish influence. However, the Pueblos did not mourn the Spaniards' departure. Food grew scarce; starvation was unavoidable, and raids became increasingly common. Extra care was used to safeguard the food supply of the Pueblos along with their women and children. In 1691 or 1692, a delegation of Pueblo men from Jemez, Zia, Santa Ana, San Felipe, Pecos, and several Tanos traveled to Guadalupe del Paso to negotiate with the expelled Spaniards. According to tribal history, the Pueblo men invited the Spaniards to return.[33]
Reconquest
The Spanish return to New Mexico was prompted by their fears of French advances into the Mississippi valley and their desire to create a defensive frontier against the increasingly aggressive nomadic tribes on their northern borders.
Though the 1692 agreement to peace was bloodless, in the years that followed de Vargas maintained increasingly severe control over the increasingly defiant Pueblo. De Vargas returned to Mexico and gathered together about 800 people, including 100 soldiers, and returned to Santa Fe on December 16, 1693.[37] This time, however, 70 Pueblo warriors and 400 family members within the town opposed his entry. De Vargas and his forces staged a quick and bloody recapture that concluded with the surrender and execution of the 70 Pueblo warriors on December 30, and their surviving families (about 400 women and children) were sentenced to ten years' servitude and distributed to the Spanish colonists as slaves.[38][39]
In 1696 the residents of fourteen pueblos attempted a second organized revolt, launched with the murders of five missionaries and thirty-four settlers and using weapons the Spanish themselves had traded to the natives over the years; de Vargas's retribution was unmerciful, thorough and prolonged.[38][40] By the end of the century the last resisting Pueblo town had surrendered and the Spanish reconquest was essentially complete. Many of the Pueblos, however, fled New Mexico to join the Apache or Navajo or to attempt to re-settle on the Great Plains.[34] After the Pueblos were defeated, the Picuris—under the leadership of Luis Tupatu—joined their longtime allies, the Jicarilla Apaches, in El Cuartolejo, which is now in western Kansas and lies east of Pueblo, Colorado.[41]
While the independence of many pueblos from the Spaniards was short-lived, the Pueblo Revolt gained the Pueblo people a measure of freedom from future Spanish efforts to eradicate their culture and religion following the reconquest. Moreover, the Spanish issued substantial land grants to each Pueblo and appointed a public defender to protect the rights of the Native Americans and argue their legal cases in the Spanish courts. The Franciscan priests returning to New Mexico did not again attempt to impose a theocracy on the Pueblo who continued to practice their traditional religion.[35]
Rise of Great Plains horse cultures
The revolt may have increased the spread of horses onto the Great Plains when the Pueblos seized the livestock abandoned by the fleeing Spaniards,[42] although genetic and archaeological studies indicate that a native horse culture was already widely established by the first half of the 17th century.[43][44]
In popular culture
The 1994 Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Journey's End" references the Pueblo Revolt, in the context of ancestors of different characters having been involved in the revolt.[45]
In 1995, in
A statue of Po'Pay by sculptor Cliff Fragua was added to the National Statuary Hall Collection in the United States Capitol Building in 2005 as one of New Mexico's two statues.[46] The knotted cord in his left hand was used to time the start of the revolt. Although the exact number of knots utilized is up for debate, (sculptor Cliff Fragua) believes that planning and informing the majority of the Pueblos must have taken many days. The bear fetish in his right hand represents the Pueblo religion, which is the center of the Pueblo universe. The pot behind him represents Pueblo culture, and the deer hide he wears is a humble representation of his role as a provider. The necklace he wears serves as a continual reminder of where life began, and he dresses in Pueblo style, with a loin cloth and moccasins. His hair is cut in the Pueblo style and wrapped in a chongo. The scars left over from the whipping he endured for his involvement in and devotion to Pueblo customs and religion are on his back.[47]
In 2005, in Los Angeles, Native Voices at the Autry produced Kino and Teresa, an adaptation of Romeo and Juliet written by Taos Pueblo playwright James Lujan. Set five years after the Spanish Reconquest of 1692, the play links actual historical figures with their literary counterparts to dramatize how both sides learned to live together and form the culture that is present-day New Mexico.[48]
In 2011, Taos Pueblo singer Robert Mirabal's new one-man show, "Po'pay Speaks," was advertised as "a dramatic presentation of the history and continuing influence of the great leader of the 1680 Pueblo revolt." According to the original script, which Mirabal, Steve Parks, and Nelson Zink of Taos wrote, Po'pay never died. He has been living in seclusion in the mountains for the entire time, observing the oddities of history as it has been shaped by the individuals he assisted in rescuing 331 years ago.[49]
In 2016, Jason Garcia (Okuu Pin-Turtle Mountain) created artwork to capture the ever-changing cultural landscape of Santa Clara Pueblo, New Mexico. Garcia's art is influenced by Tewa traditional rites, customs, and storytelling, as well as 21st-century popular culture, comic books and technology.[50] Garcia uses comic books as a medium for expression in his clay tile "Tewa Tales of Suspense!" A muscled Po'Pay towers over the helmeted conquistadors as a mission chapel burns. A close examination of his "Corn Dance Girls" jar reveals a satellite TV antenna emerging from the Pueblo behind the figures.[51]
In 2023, in
Pueblo Revolt leaders and their home pueblos
- Ku-htihth (Cochiti): Antonio Malacate
- Galisteo (Galisteo): Juan El Tano
- Walatowa (Jemez): Luis Conixu
- Nambé (Nambé): Diego Xenome
- Welai (Picuris): Luis Tupatu(Ciervo Blanco)
- Powhogeh (San Ildefonso): Francisco El Ollito and Nicolas de la Cruz Jonv
- Ohkay (San Juan): Po'pay and Tagu
- San Lazaro: Antonio Bolsas and Cristobal Yope
- Khapo (Santa Clara): Domingo Naranjo and Cajete
- Kewa (Santo Domingo): Alonzo Catiti
- Teotho (Taos): El Saca
- Tehsugeh (Tesuque): Domingo Romero [54]
See also
- List of battles fought in New Mexico
- List of conflicts in the United States
- List of Indigenous rebellions in Mexico and Central America
- Spanish missions in New Mexico
- Fiestas de Santa Fe
- Zozobra
- California mission clash of cultures
- Astialakwa
References
- ISBN 0-8263-3118-1.
- ISBN 9781574160642.
- ^ The Pueblo Revolt of 1680: Conquest and Resistance in Seventeenth-Century New Mexico, Andrew L. Knaut. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman. 1995
- ISBN 9781574160642.
- ^ Riley, Carroll L. Rio del Norte: People of the Upper Rio Grande from Earliest Times to the Pueblo Revolt Salt Lake City: U of Utah Press, 1995, pp. 247–251
- ^ Wilcox, Michael V., "The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of conquest: an Indigenous archaeology of contact", University of California Press, 2009
- ^ Forbes, Jack D., "Apache, Navaho, and Spaniard", Oklahoma, 1960 p. 112
- ^ Sando, Joe S., Pueblo Nations: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1992 pp. 61–62
- ^ Sanchez, Joseph P. (1996). [[1] "Nicolas de Aguilar and the Jurisdiction of Salinas in the Province of New Mexico, 1659-1662"]. Revista Complutense de Historia de América. 22: 139.
{{cite journal}}
: Check|url=
value (help) - ISBN 978-1-63149-699-8.
- ^ Hackett, Charles Wilson. Historical Documents Relating to New Mexico, Nueva Vizacaya and Approaches Thereto in 1773, 3 vols, Washington, 1937
- ^ a b Sando, Joe S., Pueblo Nations: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1992 p. 63
- ISBN 9781574160642.
- ^ a b Riley, p. 267
- ^ John, Elizabeth A. H. Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press, 1975, p. 96
- ^ "The Peublo Revolt: The Pueblo Indians in the province of New Mexico had long chafed under Spanish rule. In 1680 all their grievances flared into a violent rebellion that surprised the Europeans with its ferocity - Document - Gale OneFile: Popular Magazines". go.gale.com. Retrieved October 17, 2021.
- ISBN 9781574160642.
- ^ Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away Stanford: Stanford U Press, 1991, p. 132
- ISBN 978-0-7643-3808-3. pp. 14–15.
- ^ "The Peublo Revolt: The Pueblo Indians in the province of New Mexico had long chafed under Spanish rule. In 1680 all their grievances flared into a violent rebellion that surprised the Europeans with its ferocity - Document - Gale OneFile: Popular Magazines". go.gale.com. Retrieved October 17, 2021.
- OCLC 828490601.
- ISBN 978-0-7643-3808-3. pp. 16–17.
- ^ Gutierrez, pp. 133–135
- ^ a b Flint, Richard and Shirley Cushing. "Antonio de Otermin and the Pueblo Revolt of 1680[permanent dead link]." New Mexico Office of the State Historian, accessed 29 Oct 2013.
- ^ Richard Flint and Shirley Cushing Flint (2009). "Bartolome de Ojeda". New Mexico Office of the State Historian. Archived from the original on September 18, 2009. Retrieved July 6, 2009.
- ^ Gutierrez, p. 136
- ^ John, pp. 106–108
- ^ Gutierrez, p. 139
- ^ Popé, Public Broadcasting System, accessed 25 Jul 2012
- ^ Sando, Joe S. (1992). "Pueblo Nation: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History". Internet Archive. pp. 65–67.
- ^ Campbell, Howard. “Tribal synthesis: Piros, Mansos, and Tiwas through history.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. 12, 2006. 310–302
- ISBN 978-0-8165-0500-5. Retrieved February 6, 2015.
- ^ Sando, Joe S. (1992). "Pueblo Nation: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History". Internet Archive.
- ^ a b Flint, Richard and Shirley Cushing, "de Vargas, Diego Archived 2012-03-24 at the Wayback Machine." New Mexico Office of the State Historian, accessed 29 Jul 2012
- ^ a b Gutierrez, p. 146
- ^ a b Kessell, John L., 1979. Kiva, Cross & Crown: The Pecos Indians and New Mexico, 1540–1840. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior: Washington, DC.
- ^ Robert W. Preucel, Archaeologies of the Pueblo Revolt: Identity, Meaning, and Renewal in the Pueblo World (University of New Mexico Press, 2007) p. 207
- ^ a b Kessell, John L., Rick Hendricks, and Meredith D. Dodge (eds.), 1995. To the Royal Crown Restored (The Journals of Don Diego De Vargas, New Mexico, 1692–94). University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque.
- ^ Ramón A. Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500–1846 (Stanford University Press, 1991) p. 145
- ^ Kessell, John L., Rick Hendricks, and Meredith D. Dodge (eds.), 1998. Blood on the Boulders (The Journals of Don Diego De Vargas, New Mexico, 1694–97). University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque.
- ^ Sando, Joe S. (1992). "Pueblo Nation: Eight Centuries of Pueblo Indian History". Internet Archive. p. 75.
- ^ Hämäläinen, Pekka (2011). "Horse". Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. University of Nebraska. Retrieved March 8, 2023.
- ^ Larson, Christina (March 30, 2023). "Horses came to American West by early 1600s, study finds". 2 News KTVN. Associated Press. Retrieved April 3, 2023.
- S2CID 257836757.
- ^ "The Next Generation Transcripts – Journey's End". Chrissie's Transcripts Site. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
- ^ Sando, Joe S. and Herman Agoyo, with contributions by Theodore S. Jojola, Robert Mirabal, Alfoonso Ortiz, Simon J. Ortiz and Joseph H. Suina, foreword by Bill Richardson, Po’Pay: Leader of the First American Revolution, Clear Light Publishing, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 2005
- ISBN 9781574160642.
- ^ Heffley, Lynne (March 4, 2005). "Yearning to be heard". Los Angeles Times.
- ^ Romancito, Rick (August 11, 2011). "Po'pay never died: Robert Mirabal tackles the biggest theatrical challenge of his life performance". Taos News (NM). Chris Baker. pp. 15–16.
- ^ "IAIA A-i-R: Jason Garcia, Gerry Quotskuyva, and Luke Parnell--Open Studio". US Official News. Right Vision Media.
- ^ Roberts, Kathaleen (July 10, 2016). "Influence & Style". Albuquerque Journal (NM). Journal Publishing Co.
- ^ "Rella Lossy Award".
- ^ https://www.altertheater.org/pueblorevolt
- ^ Sando, Joe S. and Herman Agoyo, editors, Po'pay: Leader of the First American Revolution, Clear Light Publishing, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 2005 p. 110
Bibliography
- Espinosa, J. Manuel. The Pueblo Indian revolt of 1696 and the Franciscan missions in New Mexico: letters of the missionaries and related documents, Norman : University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. [ISBN missing]
- Hackett, Charles Wilson. Revolt of the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Otermín's Attempted Reconquest, 1680–1682, 2 vols, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1942.
- Knaut, Andrew L. The Pueblo Revolt of 1680, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995. [ISBN missing]
- Liebmann, Matthew. Revolt: An Archaeological History of Pueblo Resistance and Revitilization in 17th Century New Mexico, Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2012. [ISBN missing]
- Ponce, Pedro, "Trouble for the Spanish, the Pueblo Revolt of 1680", Humanities, November/December 2002, Volume 23/Number 6.
- PBS The West – Events from 1650 to 1800
- ISBN 978-0544602670.
- Salpointe, Jean Baptiste, Soldiers of the Cross; Notes on the Ecclesiastical History of New-Mexico, Arizona and Colorado, Salisbury, N.C.: Documentary Publications, 1977 (reprint from 1898). [ISBN missing]
- Simmons, Mark, New Mexico: An Interpretive History, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977. [ISBN missing]
- Weber, David J. ed., What Caused the Pueblo Revolt of 1680? New York: Bedford/St. Martin's Press, 1999. [ISBN missing]
- Preucel, Robert W., 2002. Archaeologies of the Pueblo Revolt: Identity, Meaning, and Renewal in the Pueblo World. University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque. [ISBN missing]
- Wilcox, Michael V., "The Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of conquest: an Indigenous archaeology of contact", University of California Press, 2009. [ISBN missing]
External links
- PBS Documentary about the Pueblo Revolt: Frontera!
- ancientweb.org/America
- PBS: The West – Archives of the West. "Letter of the governor and captain-general, Don Antonio de Otermin, from New Mexico, in which he gives him a full account of what has happened to him since the day the Indians surrounded him. [September 8, 1680.]" Retrieved Nov. 2, 2009.
- Pueblo Rebellion – desertusa.com