Puerto Rican Nationalist Party insurgency
Puerto Rican Nationalist Party insurgency | |||||||
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Part of political violence in the United States during the Cold War | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Puerto Rican Nationalist Party | United States | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Albizu Campos | Luis R. Esteves | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
16 killed 9 wounded |
8 killed 29 wounded | ||||||
4 civilians killed 11 wounded | |||||||
Additional PRNP paramilitary cells in Washington, D.C. |
Part of a series on the |
Puerto Rican Nationalist Party |
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History of Puerto Rico |
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Puerto Rico portal |
The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party insurgency was a series of coordinated insurrections for the secession of
The party organized a series of insurrections to take place in various Puerto Rican cities on October 30, 1950. The insurrections were suppressed by strong ground and air military force, including forces of the
In 1952, nearly 82% of Puerto Rican voters approved the Constitution of the Estado Libre Associado. But the Nationalists considered the outcome of the vote a political farce since the referendum offered no option to vote in favor of independence or statehood, restricting the choices to only two: a continuation of the colonial status existing at that time and the proposed new commonwealth status.[1][2]
On March 1, 1954, in another armed assault, four Nationalists fired shots from the visitors' gallery in the House of Representatives of the United States Capitol during a full floor debate, wounding five Congressmen, one seriously. The Nationalists were protesting what they perceived as a continuation of a colonial status in Puerto Rico.
Historical context
Spanish Colony, Carta de Autonomía, US Possession
After 400 years of colonial domination under the
In 1901, the first civilian U.S. governor of Puerto Rico,
The federal government did not quite know how to classify Puerto Ricans at first. In 1904, the Immigration Service implemented more strict regulations that classified people from Puerto Rico as aliens who tried to enter the US, although previously they had easily migrated. In a case carried to the US Supreme Court by Isabel González in 1904, the court ruled that Puerto Ricans had the right of free travel to the US. In 1917, the US granted full US citizenship to residents of Puerto Rico; they were restricted from voting in presidential elections because they did not have the status of a state.
United States "Manifest Destiny" and the banana republics
The
In 1912 the Cuyamel Banana company, a U.S. corporation, orchestrated the military invasion of
By 1930 the
By 1930, over 40 percent of all the arable land in Puerto Rico had been converted into
Puerto Rican Nationalist Party
External videos | |
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You may watch newsreel scenes of the Ponce massacre here |
There had been a push to
On May 11, 1930, Albizu Campos was elected president of the Nationalist Party. Social unrest increased during the Great Depression, and the party became the largest independence movement in Puerto Rico. In the mid-1930s, the Nationalist movement gained support after the Río Piedras and the Ponce massacres; they said the US-supported government resorted to violence to maintain its colonial regime in Puerto Rico.[10][11]
After disappointing electoral results, the two massacres and continued strong repression by the territorial police authorities, by the mid-1930s Albizu opted against electoral participation, and advocated violent revolution.
Lead up to October 1950
From mid-1948 to mid-1950, the efforts of the US government to control the political future of Puerto Rico, denying a voice for independence, were escalated through a law signed by the US-appointed territorial governor in June 1948 and a law signed by the US president in July 1950.
Puerto Rico's Gag Law (Ley de la Mordaza)
On May 21, 1948, a bill had been introduced before the
The Gag Law made it a crime to print, publish, sell, or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. It made it illegal to sing a patriotic song, and reinforced the 1898 law that had made it illegal to display the Flag of Puerto Rico, with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law in any way being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of up to US$10,000 (equivalent to $127,000 in 2023), or both, for each offense.
Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950
On July 3, 1950, President
Revolts and events of 1950
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Newsreel scenes in Spanish of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s | |
Newsreel scenes in English of the assassination attempt on U.S. President Harry S Truman |
The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts were a repudiation of the "Free Associated State" designation of Puerto Rico - a designation they regarded as a colonial farce. They were a call for independence from US rule, demanding the recognition of the 1898 Charter of Autonomy, and Puerto Rico's international sovereignty.
The revolts began on October 30, 1950, upon the orders of
The revolts were not limited to Puerto Rico. They included a plot to assassinate the President of the United States Harry S. Truman. On November 1, 1950, two Nationalists attacked the Blair House in Washington, D.C., where Truman was staying while renovations were being made to the White House.
The last major attempt by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party to draw world attention to Puerto Rico's situation occurred on March 1, 1954, when four Nationalists attacked the United States House of Representatives.
Peñuelas Incident
The first incident of the Nationalist uprisings was an act by a police force against the rebels, in the pre-dawn hours of October 29, 1950. The Insular Police of the town of Peñuelas surrounded the house of Melitón Muñiz Santos's mother. Melitón Muñiz Santos was the president of the Peñuelas Nationalist Party in the barrio Macaná, and the police were about to raid the house that Muñiz Santos was using as distribution center for weapons for the Nationalist Revolt.[16][17] Without warning, the police fired on the Nationalists in the house. A firefight ensued, killing three Nationalists (Arturo Ortiz, Guillermo González Ubides, José A. Ramos) and wounding six police officers.[18][19] Nationalists Meliton Muñoz Santos, Roberto Jaume Rodriguez, Estanislao Lugo Santiago, Marcelino Turell, William Gutirrez and Marcelino Berrios were arrested and accused of participating in an ambush against the local Insular Police.[20]
Arecibo Incident
Tomás López de Victoria, Sub-Commander of the Cadets of the Republic, led the revolt in Arecibo. He ordered Ismael Díaz Matos to attack the local police station. Díaz Matos killed four policemen before fleeing. Fellow Nationalist Hipólito Miranda Díaz was killed while he covered the escape of his comrades. Díaz Matos and his group were captured and arrested by the National Guard. Among the Cadets arrested and charged with organizing the attack were López de Victoria and Juan Jaca Hernández, Cadet Captain of Arecibo.[21][22]
Ponce Incident
Police Corporal Aurelio Miranda approached a car carrying some Nationalists. Fellow officers suggested they arrest them. Officer Miranda was shot dead in a gunfight between the Nationalists and the police. Antonio Alicea, Jose Miguel Alicea, Francisco Campos (Albizu Campos' nephew), Osvaldo Perez Martinez, and Ramon Pedrosa Rivera were arrested and accused of the murder of police Corporal Miranda. Raul de Jesus was accused of violation of the Insular Firearms Law.[dead link][23]
Mayagüez Incident
The Nationalist group of Mayagüez was one of the largest. It was divided into several units, each assigned to attack different targets. One of the groups attacked the town's police station, resulting in the death of three policemen and three bystanders. This unit joined the others in Barrio La Quinta. After local police arrived, the men escaped into the mountains and avoided further casualties by using guerrilla tactics. One of the members of these units was Nationalist cadet Irvin Flores Rodríguez, who on March 1, 1954, together with Lolita Lebrón, Rafael Cancel Miranda and Andres Figueroa Cordero, attacked the members of the US House of Representatives in Washington, DC with automatic pistols.
Jayuya Uprising
The Jayuya Uprising was a revolt in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico, which occurred on October 30, 1950. The revolt, led by Blanca Canales, was one of the most notable among the various revolts which occurred that day against the island's US-supported government.[24] In the town square, Canales gave a speech and declared Puerto Rico a free Republic. Under the direction of the Puerto Rico commander of the U.S.-backed Puerto Rico National Guard, the town was attacked by US-supplied planes and artillery.[25][26] The town was held by the Nationalists for three days.
Utuado Uprising
The
San Juan Nationalist revolt
The rebels also attacked the capital of Puerto Rico, San Juan, in the
Naranjito Incident
José Antonio Negrón, a World War II veteran, led the revolt in Naranjito and Nationalists who attacked the police. Afterward, they retreated to the nearby mountains and formed a guerrilla group. They continued to raid several locations until November 6, when the National Guard arrived and attacked the house where the group was staying. Negrón escaped to Corozal, where he was arrested on November 10. The Nationalist Insurrection in Puerto Rico ended at Naranjito.[22]
Truman assassination attempt
The revolt included the
Outcome and continued actions in 1950s
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Newsreel scenes in Spanish and in English of the attack on the U.S. Capitol led by Lolita Lebrón |
Outcome of the 1950 revolts
The revolts resulted in many casualties: of the 28 dead, 16 were Nationalists, 7 were police officers, one a National Guardsman, and 4 were civilians. Of the 49 wounded, 23 were police officers, 6 were National Guardsmen, 9 were Nationalists, and 11 were civilians.[32]
The revolt of October 1950 failed because of the overwhelming force used by the U.S.-backed
The U.S.-backed Puerto Rico National Guard had also bombed the towns of
After the assassination attempt against him in 1950, Truman pushed for a "status referendum" and accompanying "constitution." In a March 1952 vote, nearly 82% of voters in Puerto Rico approved the constitution.[36] This result was controversial, since the referendum had only offered a choice between the existing colony or commonwealth, and neither independence nor statehood were on the ballot.[1][2]
1954 U.S. Capitol shooting incident
On March 1, 1954, the Nationalists
All four attackers were tried and convicted in federal court and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. In 1978 and 1979, President Jimmy Carter commuted their sentences to time served, and the four returned to Puerto Rico.Continued repression of independence movement
Among the factors which has affected the independence movement in Puerto Rico have been the "
Notable Nationalist leaders of the 1950s
- Pedro Albizu Campos - Party president.
- Alvaro Rivera Walker - Secretary to Albizu Campos.
- Juan Antonio Corretjer - 1st Secretary General of the Nationalist Party.
- Francisco Matos Paoli - 2nd Secretary General of the Nationalist Party.
- Vidal Santiago Díaz - President of the Santurce Municipal Board of the PRNP.[21]
- Raimundo Díaz Pacheco - Treasurer General of the Nationalist Party, Commander of the Cadets of the Republic and leader of the San Juan Nationalist revolt.[21]
- Tomás López de Victoria - Sub-Commander of the Cadets of the Republic and leader of the Arecibo Incident.[21]
- Rio Piedras.
- Blanca Canales - Jayuya Uprising leader.
- Heriberto Castro - Captain of the Utuado branch of the Cadets of the Republic.
- Rosa Collazo - Treasurer of the New York branch of the Nationalist Party.
- Melitón Muñiz Santos - President of the Peñuelas branch of the Nationalist Party and leader of the Peñuelas Incident.
- José Antonio Negrón - Leader of the Naranjito Incident.
- Viequesbranch of the Nationalist Party.
- Hugo Margenat - Founder of "Acción Juventud Independentista" (Pro-independence Youth Action) and the "Federación de Universitarios Pro Independencia" (Federation of Pro-independence University Students).
- Ruth Mary Reynolds - Founder of "Americans for Puerto Rico's Independence".
- Damián Torres - Led the Utuado Uprising with Heriberto Castro.
Attempt against President Truman
- Oscar Collazo - President of the New York branch of the Nationalist Party.
- Griselio Torresola - Cousin of Blanca Canales who teamed up with Oscar Collazo in the assassination attempt.
U.S. Capitol shooting incident
- Lolita Lebrón - Leader of the attack against the U.S. Capitol in 1954.
- Rafael Cancel Miranda - Participant in the attack against the U.S. Capitol in 1954
- Irvin Flores - Participant in the attack against the U.S. Capitol in 1954
- Andres Figueroa Cordero - Participant in the attack against the U.S. Capitol in 1954
Photo gallery
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(L to R) Nationalists Carmen María Pérez Gonzalez, Olga Viscal Garriga and Ruth Mary Reynolds
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Raimundo Díaz Pacheco commanding the Cadets of the Republic
Mundo Abierto (Open World)
"Mundo Abierto " (Open World) is a poem written in 1956 by Hugo Margenat, in which he refers to the bombardment of the town of Jayuya by the U.S.-backed Puerto Rico National Guard. This occurred during the Jayuya Uprising, which was headed by Nationalist leader Blanca Canales.[40]
Spanish (original version) |
English translation |
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Soldado: asesino de la patria Hombre, rechaza el uniforme que denigra. |
Soldier: murderer of the fatherland Man, reject the uniform that defames. |
Yo sé de la marinería borracha y sádica que como una avalancha de blanco estiércol |
I know about the sadistic and drunken seamanship that as an avalanche of white manure |
Yo sé de los aviones que ametrallaron nuestros tejados en un día de octubre. |
I know of the airplanes that machine-gunned our rooftops in a day of October. |
No olvides que la luz no pudo ser ocultada y a su calor la patria suspiró transformándose |
Do not you forget that the light could not be hidden and from its heat the fatherland sighed transforming |
Incarcerated Nationalists
FBI list of names of the Nationalists who were incarcerated in 1950 and who were still in prison as of 1954.[41]
Names of the Nationalists who were incarcerated in 1950 and who were still in prison as of 1954. | |
Aguadilla
Arecibo
Cayey
Ciales
Corozal
Jayuya
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Juncos
Maricao
Mayaguez
Ponce
Naranjito
San Juan
Utuado
Vega Alta
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See also
- List of Puerto Ricans
- List of revolutions and rebellions
- Puerto Rican Independence Movement
- Puerto Rican Nationalist Party
References
- ^ ISBN 978-0-14-311928-9
- ^ ISBN 0-394-71787-2
- ISBN 0-394-71787-2
- ^ Federico Ribes Tovar, Albizu Campos: Puerto Rican Revolutionary, pp.106–109; Plus Ultra Publishers, 1971
- ^ a b c Ribes Tovar et al., p.122–144
- ISBN 0-394-71787-2
- ^ a b Rich Cohen. The Fish That Ate the Whale. pub. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2012. pp. 14-67.
- ^ Rich Cohen (2012). pp. 146-150.
- ^ Rich Cohen; The Fish That Ate the Whale; pub. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2012; p. 174
- ISBN 1-85109-523-3. Retrieved May 1, 2009.
- ISBN 1-85109-523-3.
- ^ La Gobernación de Jesús T. Piñero y la Guerra Fría
- ^ "La obra jurídica del Profesor David M. Helfeld (1948-2008)'; by: Dr. Carmelo Delgado Cintrón Archived March 27, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Puerto Rican History". Topuertorico.org. January 13, 1941. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
- ^ "JTS Box Number : IFES 29" (PDF). Ifes.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 23, 2014. Retrieved May 27, 2020.
- ^ Puerto Rico entre siglos: "Historiografía y cultura"; El Estado Libre Asociado y el Partido Nacionalista (1950-1954); Antecedentes inmediatos; by: Mario R. Cancel-Sepúlveda, historian and author
- ^ "Guerra Contra Todos los Puertorrique os: Revoluci n y Terror en la Colonia Americana"; by: Nelson Denis; pages 212-213; Publisher: Nation Books;
ISBN 1568585462, 9781568585468.
- ISBN 1-933352-62-0
- ISBN 978-1-931702-01-0
- ^ Nacionalism Revolucionario Puerorriqueno, por Michael Gonzalez Cruz
- ^ a b c d "FBI Files"; "Puerto Rico Nationalist Party"; SJ 100-3; Vol. 23; pages 104-134. Archived November 1, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Nationalist Insurrection
- ^ Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico-FBI files
- ISBN 978-1-931702-01-0
- ^ ISBN 1-933352-62-0
- ^ a b NY Latino Journal Archived August 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b "History of Utuado" Archived April 22, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Ortizal website
- ^ Claridad Archived May 8, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-1-931702-01-0
- ^ "Premio a Jesús Vera Irizarry", WebCite, GeoCities
- ^ ISBN 0-7432-6068-6.
- ^ SEMINAR: THE U.S. TERRITORIAL POSSESSIONS; SPRING 2006; PROFESSOR PEDRO A. MALAVET
- ^ ISBN 0-394-71787-2
- ^ a b Federico Ribes Tovar, Albizu Campos: Puerto Rican Revolutionary, pp.105-134; Plus Ultra Educational pub., 1971
- ^ ISBN 1-933352-62-0
- ISBN 978-0-19-928357-6
- ^ a b "We Have Nothing to Repent". Time. September 24, 1979. Archived from the original on October 16, 2007. Retrieved July 18, 2008.
- ^ "Puerto Rico Votes on Status: A Primer on Independence". Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved December 12, 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-9650043-0-5
- ^ isla negra. Archived August 18, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico"; FBI Files; (NPPR); SJ 100-3; Vol. 26; Pages 44-63
Further reading
- ISBN 978-1568585017.