Puerto Rican amazon
Puerto Rican amazon | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Psittaciformes |
Family: | Psittacidae |
Genus: | Amazona |
Species: | A. vittata
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Binomial name | |
Amazona vittata (Boddaert, 1783)
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Subspecies | |
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The Puerto Rican amazon (Amazona vittata), also known as the Puerto Rican parrot (
The Puerto Rican amazon reaches sexual maturity at between three and four years of age. It reproduces once a year and is a
The species is the only remaining native parrot to Puerto Rico and has been listed as
Taxonomy and evolution
The Puerto Rican amazon was described by the French polymath
Birds in the genus Amazona are commonly known as
There are two recognized subspecies:
- A. v. vittata is the Mona Island.[12]
- A. v. gracilipes inhabited Culebra Island and is now extinct. It is unclear whether it was substantially different from the nominate subspecies.
Evolutionary history
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Phylogeny of the Greater Antillean Amazona after Russello and Amato, 2004. |
The various native parrot species in the
British ornithologist
Description
The Puerto Rican amazon measures 28–30 cm (11.0–11.8 in) and weighs 250–300 g (8.8–10.6 oz), or 275 g (9.7 oz) on average. Although small compared to amazons in general, it is similar in size to other Greater Antilles Amazona species.
Population and distribution
The precise distribution of the Puerto Rican amazon before the arrival of
At first, human activity had not posed a significant threat to the Puerto Rican amazon. The Taíno hunted the parrot but without much effect on its population.[28] In the past 200 years, however, many factors have led to a drastic decrease in the birds' numbers: agricultural development, the construction of roads, hydroelectric development, and the adoption of young chicks as pets.[29] Especially during the latter half of the 19th century, most of Puerto Rico's virgin forests, a historical habitat of the species, were cleared for agricultural development, primarily for the production of sugar, cotton, corn and rice. The amazon quickly came to rely on these crops as its main food source and so became seen as a pest; local farmers repelled or hunted the bird if possible.[30] As agriculture expanded, the amazon's habitat disappeared further and its population declined.
The species was historically found in mature or old-growth forests in Puerto Rico at all elevations, and in holes, cliffs, and other diverse habitats at lower elevations. The species could be found at medium elevations in the
By the 1950s, there were only 200 parrots in the wild, and in 1975 the population reached an absolute low of 13 individuals. Numbers then recovered, and in August 1989 there were an estimated minimum of 47 individuals. But on September 18, 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck the northeast coast of Puerto Rico inflicting heavy casualties on the remaining birds. In the aftermath of the hurricane the population was estimated at 23 individuals. In 2004, the wild population was 30–35 individuals, and the long-term trend appears to be stable albeit with some fluctuations.[33][34] The current range of the species is 16 km2 (6.2 sq mi), 0.2% of what it once was.[1] In the aftermath of Hurricane María it was estimated only 3 of the 50 parrots survived in the wild, representing a loss of 90%.[35] Recovery programs continue and as of 2021 the total population is around 500 including those in captivity and in the wild.[36]
Behavior
External audio | |
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You may see a listing of the Puerto Rican amazon vocal repertoire here |
The Puerto Rican amazon is diurnal, typically beginning its day half an hour after sunrise.[37] It is generally secretive when inside its nest, using its green plumage as camouflage. In contrast, it may be vocal and noisy when outside the nest. Upon taking flight, its color pattern provides some contrast to the forest. The flight mechanism of this species is similar to the one found in other amazons, and involves strokes below the body axis, unlike most birds whose wings flow above their bodies in flight. Amazons can fly moderately fast, reaching a top speed of approximately 30 km/h (19 mph), and are fairly agile when evading predators in mid-air.[38] When in search of food, the parrots group in pairs. Couples and their fledged young display a tendency to stay together.[39] The amazon makes two flight calls, a take-off squawk which consist of a pattern of long squawks, and a loud "bugle", commonly used in flight and which may have several meanings depending on the circumstances when it is used.[40]
Diet
Like almost all amazons, the Puerto Rican amazon is a
Breeding
The Puerto Rican amazon usually mates for life, with pairs only changing mates if one bird perishes or abandons the nest.[45] A male may abandon the female if the latter is injured, re-mating with a more "physically perfect" subject.[45] The pairing process is unknown; however, new pairs tend to participate in mutual mating dances characterised by coordinated bows, partial extension of the wings and full tail expansion.[46]
The Puerto Rican amazon is a secondary
The Puerto Rican amazon reaches sexual maturity at 4 years of age in the wild and at 3 years in captivity. The species usually reproduces once a year between the months of January and July (the dry season). Copulation between pairs seems to be closely related to food transfers, with this possibly serving as a trigger for intercourse.[48] Amazons have a copulation pattern similar to that found in other parrots throughout the Americas, with the male gripping a perch with one leg while passively placing the other in the female's back.[49] As the time for egg-laying approaches the pair spends more time in the nest, with the male providing food to the female via regurgitation.[50] The female lays 2–4 eggs that she exclusively incubates for a period of 24 to 28 days, while the male will be present in the vicinity of the nest when providing food.[51] Females only leave the nest on rare occasions involving repelling predators or if the male has not brought food in an extended time frame.[52] The chicks are fed by both parents until they leave the nest, usually 60 to 65 days after they hatch.[33] Nonetheless, they remain dependent on their parents and travel with them until the next breeding season.[10]
Like other amazons, the Puerto Rican amazon is gregarious while performing daily activities, but territorial around its nest.[53] The size of the territory around the nest is usually around 50 meters (164 feet).[12] Pairs are extremely cautious near their nest, usually moving in a slow manner when leaving the nest to avoid the attention of predators.[54] Although territorial defense is mostly composed of loud vocalizations there are instances of actual physical combat.[55] Pairs will defend their nest sites against invading couples, sometimes focusing on the location's defense instead of egg-laying. Pairs nesting in areas uninhabited by other parrots will remain mostly silent unless other parrots enter the zone.[55] Some pairs may display moderate territoriality even when not apparently intending to nest, with these tendencies beginning in the latter half of the breeding season. One hypothesis is that this would occur in young pairs that had still not reached full maturity, serving as "practice territoriality".[56]
Threats and conservation
On March 11, 1967, the Puerto Rican amazon entered the
The
Threats
Human activity is arguably the main reason for the population decline of the Puerto Rican amazon.[25] Early settlers of Puerto Rico, such as the Taíno, hunted it for food consumption but managed to maintain a healthy ecological balance. Later, habitat destruction, capture of immature individuals for the pet industry, hunting and predation contributed to the sharp population decline. The clearing of mature forests for agricultural development is the main reason for the decline of population.
Natural predators of the Puerto Rican amazon include the
Natural disasters, such as hurricanes, were not a threat to the Puerto Rican parrot population when it was more readily self-maintaining, but as a result of the fragmentation and reduction of the population these disasters are now a threat as well. Hurricane Hugo passed through the species' range in September 1989, and reduced the population from 47 to 23 individuals.[62]
Recovery plan
In response to the Puerto Rican amazon's low population and endangered status, a recovery plan was drafted and implemented in 1968. Its main objective was to downlist the species to threatened status by the year 2020.[25] Other objectives included establishing two separate viable wild populations (each of which would consist of 500 or more individuals for a period of at least five years), protecting habitat for those populations, and controlling predators, parasites and competitors. A third site was planned in 2011 by the Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex.[63] As part of the conservation efforts, a captive population was established in the Luquillo Aviary in 1973.[25] Another was established in 1993 when some individuals were transferred from the Luquillo Aviary to the Rio Abajo State Forest under the administration of the Puerto Rican Department of Natural Resources (Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales).[64] In 2007, expanded facilities at the Iguaca Aviary at the El Yunque National Forest were inaugurated and dedicated to the late Priscilla Stubbe, who was a major fundraiser for the new facility.[65]
Human activity once again threatened the amazon during the following years. In 2012, it was reported that the unsanctioned flight of light aircraft from adjacent islands was disrupting the reproductive and social behaviors of the species.[66] Via Verde, a gas pipeline grid proposed by the Luis Fortuño administration, raised concerns among conservationists due to further deforestation of the regions where the birds feed.[67] New conservation efforts have also begun during this timeframe. In 2011, a research team of the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez sequenced the amazon's genome.[68] On August 15, 2013, the discovery of non-assisted nests in the Río Abajo State Forest was announced.[69] Experts considered this a sign of expansion, implying that the reintroduced amazon population was fully adapting to wild life and was dispersing throughout the region. This was noted as a significant advance, since El Yunque is not an ideal habitat for the bird due to its humidity, which precipitates sickness in some of the individuals. This was accompanied by a second announcement, which noted that added to the known number of amazons in the wild (fluctuating between 64 and 112 specimens) there is an unmonitored population of approximately 50 birds dispersed throughout Puerto Rico.[70]
The creation of another aviary and captive reproduction center was considered throughout 2013, with the municipalities of Maricao and Isabela being analyzed.
To assist in improving the understanding of the overall population health of this species and aid in captive breeding programs the genome was sequenced by researchers at University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez.[77] As an emblematic species of Puerto Rico, this was carried out as a uniquely community-funded project.[78] The research budget raised by student organized art and fashion shows dedicated to the effort plus small personal donations from Puerto Rican citizens who wanted to support the work.[79] And from this data producing microsatellite marker sets to aid the captive breeding efforts and population monitoring studies by providing unique identifiers for individual birds.[80] In early 2020, 30 parrots were released into the El Yunque rainforest.[81]
See also
- Fauna of Puerto Rico
- El Toro Wilderness
- List of birds of Puerto Rico
- List of endemic fauna of Puerto Rico
- List of Puerto Rican birds
- List of Vieques birds
Citations
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- ^ Boddaert, Pieter (1783). Table des planches enluminéez d'histoire naturelle de M. D'Aubenton : avec les denominations de M.M. de Buffon, Brisson, Edwards, Linnaeus et Latham, precedé d'une notice des principaux ouvrages zoologiques enluminés (in French). Utrecht. p. 49, Number 792.
- ^ Peters, James Lee, ed. (1937). Check-list of Birds of the World. Vol. 3. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 218.
- ^ Lesson, René (1831). Traité d'Ornithologie, ou Tableau Méthodique (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: F.G. Levrault. p. 189.
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- ^ a b c d "Technical/Agency Draft Revised Recovery Plan for the Puerto Rican Parrot (Amazona vittata)" (PDF). U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. April 1999. Retrieved 18 June 2008.
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- ^ a b c d Snyder et al., p. 16
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- ^ Snyder et al., p. 22
- ^ "Puerto Rican Parrot (Amazona vittata) – Species account". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on 4 January 2006. Retrieved 4 June 2008.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4081-3575-4.
- ^ a b c d "Federal and State Agencies Reaffirm their Commitment to the Recovery of the Endangered Puerto Rican Parrot". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved 30 July 2013. http://www.fws.gov/caribbean/ParrotMoU2012.html
- ^ a b "Puerto Rican Parrot – BirdLife Species Factsheet". BirdLife International. Retrieved 18 June 2008.
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General and cited references
- ISBN 0-7018-0690-7.
- Russello, Michael A. & George Amato (2004). "A molecular phylogeny of Amazona: implications for Neotropical parrot biogeography, taxonomy, and conservation". PMID 14715233.
- Snyder, Noel F. R.; James W. Wiley & Cameron B. Kepler (1987). The Parrots of Luquillo: Natural History and Conservation of the Puerto Rican Parrot. Los Angeles: ISBN 0-935868-27-5.
External links
Amazona vittata
(Puerto Rican amazon).