Punjab

Coordinates: 31°N 74°E / 31°N 74°E / 31; 74
Page protected with pending changes
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Punjab region
)
This article is about the geographical region. For the province of Pakistan, see Punjab, Pakistan. For the state in India, see Punjab, India. For other uses, see Punjab (disambiguation).

Punjab
پنجاب • Panjāb • ਪੰਜਾਬ
Region
Nickname: 
Land of the Five Rivers
Muhajirs, Kashmiris, Biharis[1]
 • LanguagesPunjabi, its dialects and varieties and others
 • ReligionsIslam (60%)
Hinduism (29%)
Sikhism (10%)
Christianity (1%)
Others (<1%)
Time zonesUTC+05:30 (IST in India)
UTC+05:00 (PKT in Pakistan)
Demographics based on British Punjab's colonial borders
Part of a series on
Punjabis
History
Diaspora
Asia

Europe

North America

Oceania

Culture
Regions

Punjab portal

Punjab (/pʌnˈdʒɑːb, -ˈdʒæb, ˈpʊn-/; Shahmukhi: پنجاب; Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ; Punjabi: [pə̞ɲˈdʒäːb] ⓘ; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb)[b] is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is specifically located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern-Pakistan and northwestern-India. Punjab's major cities are Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Multan, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Sialkot, Chandigarh, Shimla, Jalandhar, Patiala, Gurugram, and Bahawalpur.

Punjab grew out of the settlements along the five rivers, which served as an important route to the

migrations of the Indo-Aryan peoples. Agriculture has been the major economic feature of the Punjab and has therefore formed the foundation of Punjabi culture.[3] The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region, especially following the Green Revolution during the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, and has been described as the "breadbasket of both India and Pakistan."[3]

Punjab's history is a tapestry of conflict, marked by the rise of indigenous dynasties and empires. Following

Katoch Dynasty controlled eastern Punjab, resisting Ghaznavid invasions.[8] Islam took hold in Western Punjab under Ghaznavid rule. The Delhi Sultanate then succeeded the Ghaznavids in which the Tughlaq dynasty and Sayyid dynasty Sultans are described as Punjabi origin.[9][10] The 15th century saw the emergence of the Langah Sultanate in south Punjab, acclaimed for its victory over the Lodi dynasty.[11] After the Mughal Empire's decline in the 18th century, Punjab experienced a period of anarchy. In 1799 CE, the Sikh Empire established its rule, undertaking conquests into Kashmir and Durrani Empire
held territories, shaping the diverse and complex history of Punjab.

The boundaries of the region are ill-defined and focus on historical accounts and thus the geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century

Multan Subah in the south. In British India, until the Partition of India in 1947, the Punjab Province encompassed the present-day Indian states and union territories of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, and Delhi, and the Pakistani regions of Punjab, and Islamabad Capital Territory
.

The predominant ethnolinguistic group of the Punjab region are the

East Punjab (India). Other religious groups include Hinduism, Christianity, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Ravidassia
.

Etymology

The name Punjab is of

Greeks referred to the region as Pentapotamía (Greek: Πενταποταμία), which has the same meaning as that of Punjab.[17][18][19]

History

Taxila in Pakistan is a World Heritage Site.
Main article:
History of the Punjab

Ancient period

The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies, the

Kauravas in the great battle fought at Kurukshetra.[21] According to Fauja Singh and L. M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas, and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab."[22]

Invasions of Alexander the Great (c. 4th century BCE)

King Porus, fought against Alexander the Great. His surrender is depicted in this 1865 engraving by Alonzo Chappel
.

The earliest known notable local king of this region was known as

Udabhandapura, he was greeted by the-then ruler of Taxila, Omphis.[23] Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused.[23] This led Alexander to seek for a face-off with Porus.[23] Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC; the exact site remains unknown.[23] The battle is thought to be resulted in a decisive Greek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative.[23]

Alexander later founded two cities—

Bucephalous at the battle-ground, in memory of his horse, who died soon after the battle.[23][c] Later, tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a sarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant.[23][24] Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.[23] When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".[25] Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.[26][27][28] Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.[26]

After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, Perdiccas became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in 321 BCE, Antipater became the new regent.[29] According to Diodorus, Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along the Indus River. However, Eudemus, who had served as Alexander's satrap in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.[30]

Mauryan Empire (c. 320–180 BCE)

Punjab region.[citation needed] He has also been variously identified with Shashigupta (who has same etymology as of Chandragupta) of Paropamisadae (western Punjab) on the account of same life events.[31] With the help of the small Janapadas of Punjab, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West Indian subcontinent.[32] He then defeated the Nanda rulers in Pataliputra to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus and offered a marriage, including a portion of Bactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants.[citation needed] The chief of the Mauryan military was also always a Yaudheyan warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans.[33][34] The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.[35]

Chandragupta's rule was very well organised. The Mauryans had an autocratic and centralised administration system, aided by a council of ministers, and also a well-established espionage system. Much of Chandragupta's success is attributed to Chanakya, the author of the Arthashastra. According to Buddhist sources Chanakya was native of the Punjab who resided in Taxila. Much of the Mauryan rule had a strong bureaucracy that had regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial activities, mining, statistics and data, maintenance of public places, and upkeep of temples.[citation needed]

Medieval period

Hindu Shahis (c. 820–1030 CE)

In the 9th century, the

Khokhars, formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian Firishta.[39]
The most notable rulers of the empire were Lalliya, Bhimadeva and Jayapala who were accredited for military victories.

Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 CE after it had been lost under his predecessor to the

Ghazna around 900 CE.[38][page needed
]

After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik, Bhimadeva mounted a combined attack around 963 CE.[38][page needed] Abu Ishaq Ibrahim was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi-Lawik strongholds were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas.[38][page needed] This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund Slab Inscription (HSI).[38][page needed]

Turkic rule (c. 1030–1320 CE)

Silver copper coin of Khizr Khan, founder of the Sayyid dynasty[40]

The

Ghurid conquest of Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik.[41] Following the death of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206 by Punjabi assassins near the Jhelum river, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the Delhi Sultanate
.

Tughlaq dynasty (c. 1320–1410 CE)

The Tughlaq dynasty's reign formally started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq after defeating Khusrau Khan at the Battle of Lahrawat.

During Ghazi Malik's reign, in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna Khan, later known as

Shamsuddin Firoz Shah, which he did over 1324–1325 AD,[42]
after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his army to Lukhnauti. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign.

After his father's death in 1325 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq assumed power and his rule saw the empire expand to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach.

Lakhnauti, Chittagong, Mithila and many other regions in India.[45] His distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions became commonplace all over the Indian subcontinent.[46] Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March 1351[47][page needed] while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes in Sindh and Gujarat.[48]

After Muhammad bin Tughlaq's death, the Tughlaq empire was in a state of disarray with many regions assuming independence; it was at this point that

Feroz Shah Tughlaq to Raja Kailas Pal who ruled the Nagarkot region in Punjab.[54]

Sayyid dynasty (c. 1410–1450 CE)

See also: Sayyid dynasty

Khizr Khan established the Sayyid dynasty, the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs.[55]

Following

Shah Rukh.[60][61] After the accession of Khizr Khan, the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions.[62] Punjab was the powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came from Multan and Dipalpur.[63]

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son

Jasrath Khokhar and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the Timurids of Kabul.[67]

The last ruler of the Sayyids, Ala-ud-Din, voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.[68]

Langah Sultanate (c. 1450–1540 CE)

In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of Langah (a

Barbak Shah, as well as his daughter Zeerak Rumman.[11]

Modern period

Mughal Empire (c. 1526–1761 CE)

The

misls, who expanded and established the Sikh Confederacy as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and territories north into the Himalayas.[20]

Sikh Empire (c. 1799–1849 CE)

See also: Sikh Empire

In the 19th century, Maharajah

misls.[80][81] At its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west to western Tibet in the east, and from Mithankot in the south to Kashmir in the north. It was divided into four provinces: Lahore, in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital; Multan, also in Punjab; Peshawar; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 3.5 million in 1831 (making it the 19th most populous country at the time),[82] it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to be annexed by the British Empire
.

British Punjab (c. 1849–1947 CE)

See also: Punjab Province (British India)
Illustration of Ranjit Singh, founder of the Sikh Empire

The Sikh Empire ruled the Punjab until the British annexed it in 1849 following the

Second Anglo-Sikh Wars.[83] Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of small princely states retained local rulers who recognized British authority.[20] The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets.[20] Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, and Rawalpindi became an important military installation.[20] Most Punjabis supported the British during World War I, providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti colonial activities.[84]: 163  Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued.[20] At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society.[20] In 1919, Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered troops under command to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in Amritsar. The Jallianwala massacre fueled the indian independence movement.[20] Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed.[20] When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements.[20] Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists.[20] At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.[20]

The British Raj had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the independence movement, many Punjabis played a significant role, including Madan Lal Dhingra, Sukhdev Thapar, Ajit Singh Sandhu, Bhagat Singh, Udham Singh, Kartar Singh Sarabha, Bhai Parmanand, Choudhry Rahmat Ali, and Lala Lajpat Rai. At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab. East Punjab (48%) became part of India, while West Punjab (52%) became part of Pakistan.[85] The Punjab bore the brunt of the civil unrest following partition, with casualties estimated to be in the millions.[86][87][88][89]

Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer Tim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.[90]

Geography

The geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century

Sutlej rivers.[91][92]

Sikh Empire

Map showing the Punjabi Sikh Empire

At its height in the first half of the 19th century, the Sikh Empire spanned a total of over 200,000 sq mi (520,000 km2).[93][94][95]

The Punjab was a region straddling India and the Afghan Durrani Empire. The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Punjab region during the Sikh Empire:

After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the

province of Punjab. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the Crown.[84]
: 221 

Punjab (British India)

See also: Punjab Province (British India)

In British India, until the

Jumna and Tons separated it from the United Provinces.[105]
In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj.

Map of the Punjab Province (British India)

It encompassed the present day Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, and some parts of Himachal Pradesh which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the former princely states which were later combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union) and the Pakistani regions of the Punjab, Islamabad Capital Territory and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: the

North-West Frontier Province. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:[106]: 2 [107]
: 4 

  1. Indo-Gangetic Plain West geographical division (including
    Sheikhupura district
    );
  2. Himalayan geographical division (including
    Simla Hill States, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State
    );
  3. Sub-Himalayan geographical division (including
    Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District
    ;
  4. North-West Dry Area geographical division (including
    Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, and Dera Ghazi Khan District
    ).

Partition of British Punjab

The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party–led independence movement.[108] Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most active National Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to the Akali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported the Muslim League.[108]

Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into West Punjab Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.[109]

Major cities

Main article: List of cities in the Punjab region by population

Historically, Lahore has been the capital of the Punjab region and continues to be the most populous city in the region, with a population of 11 million for the city proper. Faisalabad is the 2nd most populous city and largest industrial hub in this region. Other major cities are Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Multan, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Jalandhar, and Chandigarh are the other cities in Punjab with a city-proper population of over a million.

Climate

The snow-covered Himalayas

The climate has significant impact on the economy of Punjab, particularly for agriculture in the region. Climate is not uniform over the whole region, as the areas adjacent to the Himalayas generally receive heavier rainfall than those at a distance.[110]

There are three main seasons and two transitional periods. During the hot season, from mid-April to the end of June, the temperature may reach 49 °C (120 °F). The

hailstorms and heavy showers may occur, causing damage to crops.[111]

Western Punjab

Climate data for Islamabad (1991-2020)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 30.1
(86.2) 		30.0
(86.0) 		37.0
(98.6) 		44.0
(111.2) 		45.6
(114.1) 		50.0
(122.0) 		45.0
(113.0) 		42.0
(107.6) 		38.1
(100.6) 		38.0
(100.4) 		32.2
(90.0) 		28.3
(82.9) 		50.0
(122.0)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 17.7
(63.9) 		20.0
(68.0) 		24.8
(76.6) 		30.6
(87.1) 		36.1
(97.0) 		38.3
(100.9) 		35.4
(95.7) 		33.9
(93.0) 		33.4
(92.1) 		30.9
(87.6) 		25.4
(77.7) 		20.4
(68.7) 		28.9
(84.0)
Daily mean °C (°F) 10.7
(51.3) 		13.4
(56.1) 		18.1
(64.6) 		23.6
(74.5) 		28.7
(83.7) 		31.4
(88.5) 		30.1
(86.2) 		29.1
(84.4) 		27.6
(81.7) 		23.3
(73.9) 		17.3
(63.1) 		12.5
(54.5) 		22.2
(71.9)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 3.6
(38.5) 		6.8
(44.2) 		11.4
(52.5) 		16.6
(61.9) 		21.5
(70.7) 		24.5
(76.1) 		24.9
(76.8) 		24.2
(75.6) 		21.7
(71.1) 		15.6
(60.1) 		9.1
(48.4) 		4.7
(40.5) 		15.4
(59.7)
Record low °C (°F) −6
(21) 		−5.0
(23.0) 		−3.8
(25.2) 		2.1
(35.8) 		5.5
(41.9) 		13
(55) 		15.2
(59.4) 		14.5
(58.1) 		13.3
(55.9) 		5.7
(42.3) 		−0.6
(30.9) 		−2.8
(27.0) 		−6.0
(21.2)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 55.2
(2.17) 		99.5
(3.92) 		96.5
(3.80) 		58.1
(2.29) 		39.9
(1.57) 		78.4
(3.09) 		310.6
(12.23) 		317.0
(12.48) 		135.4
(5.33) 		34.4
(1.35) 		17.7
(0.70) 		25.9
(1.02) 		1,268.6
(49.95)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 4.7 8.0 7.3 6.1 5.2 6.0 12.3 11.9 6.4 2.9 2.0 2.0 74.8
Mean monthly sunshine hours 195.7 187.1 202.3 252.4 319.0 300.1 264.4 250.7 262.2 275.5 247.9 195.6 2,952.9
Source 1: NOAA (sun, 1961-1990)[112][113]
Source 2: PMD (extremes)[114]

Central Punjab

Climate data for Lahore (1991-2020, extremes 1931-2018)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 27.8
(82.0) 		33.3
(91.9) 		37.8
(100.0) 		46.1
(115.0) 		48.3
(118.9) 		47.2
(117.0) 		46.1
(115.0) 		42.8
(109.0) 		41.7
(107.1) 		40.6
(105.1) 		35.0
(95.0) 		30.0
(86.0) 		48.3
(118.9)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 18.4
(65.1) 		22.2
(72.0) 		27.5
(81.5) 		34.2
(93.6) 		38.9
(102.0) 		38.9
(102.0) 		35.6
(96.1) 		34.7
(94.5) 		34.4
(93.9) 		32.4
(90.3) 		27.1
(80.8) 		21.4
(70.5) 		30.5
(86.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) 13.1
(55.6) 		16.5
(61.7) 		21.6
(70.9) 		27.7
(81.9) 		32.3
(90.1) 		33.2
(91.8) 		31.3
(88.3) 		30.8
(87.4) 		29.9
(85.8) 		26.3
(79.3) 		20.4
(68.7) 		15.1
(59.2) 		24.9
(76.7)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 7.6
(45.7) 		10.8
(51.4) 		15.7
(60.3) 		21.1
(70.0) 		25.6
(78.1) 		27.4
(81.3) 		27.1
(80.8) 		26.9
(80.4) 		25.3
(77.5) 		20.1
(68.2) 		13.7
(56.7) 		8.8
(47.8) 		19.2
(66.5)
Record low °C (°F) −2.2
(28.0) 		0.0
(32.0) 		2.8
(37.0) 		10.0
(50.0) 		14.0
(57.2) 		18.0
(64.4) 		20.0
(68.0) 		19.0
(66.2) 		16.7
(62.1) 		8.3
(46.9) 		1.0
(33.8) 		−1.1
(30.0) 		−2.2
(28.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 21.9
(0.86) 		39.5
(1.56) 		43.5
(1.71) 		25.5
(1.00) 		26.7
(1.05) 		84.8
(3.34) 		195.6
(7.70) 		184.1
(7.25) 		88.6
(3.49) 		13.3
(0.52) 		6.9
(0.27) 		16.8
(0.66) 		747.2
(29.41)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 2.5 3.5 3.6 2.8 2.9 5.0 9.1 8.7 4.9 1.1 1.9 1.1 47.1
Mean monthly sunshine hours 218.8 215.0 245.8 256.1 308.3 269.0 227.5 234.9 265.6 290.0 229.6 222.9 2,983.5
Source 1: NOAA (sun, 1961-1990)[115]
Source 2: PMD[116]

Eastern Punjab

Climate data for Chandigarh (1991-2020, extremes 1954–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 27.7
(81.9) 		32.8
(91.0) 		37.8
(100.0) 		42.6
(108.7) 		44.6
(112.3) 		45.3
(113.5) 		42.0
(107.6) 		39.0
(102.2) 		37.5
(99.5) 		37.0
(98.6) 		34.0
(93.2) 		28.5
(83.3) 		45.3
(113.5)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 18.2
(64.8) 		22.6
(72.7) 		28.0
(82.4) 		34.6
(94.3) 		38.6
(101.5) 		37.7
(99.9) 		34.1
(93.4) 		33.2
(91.8) 		32.9
(91.2) 		32.0
(89.6) 		27.0
(80.6) 		22.1
(71.8) 		29.9
(85.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 7.2
(45.0) 		10.4
(50.7) 		14.7
(58.5) 		20.3
(68.5) 		24.7
(76.5) 		26.7
(80.1) 		26.9
(80.4) 		26.2
(79.2) 		24.4
(75.9) 		18.4
(65.1) 		12.3
(54.1) 		8.0
(46.4) 		18.2
(64.8)
Record low °C (°F) 0.0
(32.0) 		0.0
(32.0) 		4.2
(39.6) 		7.8
(46.0) 		13.4
(56.1) 		14.8
(58.6) 		14.2
(57.6) 		17.2
(63.0) 		14.3
(57.7) 		9.4
(48.9) 		3.7
(38.7) 		0.0
(32.0) 		0.0
(32.0)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 37.8
(1.49) 		37.3
(1.47) 		27.4
(1.08) 		17.5
(0.69) 		26.8
(1.06) 		146.7
(5.78) 		275.6
(10.85) 		273.0
(10.75) 		154.6
(6.09) 		14.2
(0.56) 		5.2
(0.20) 		22.3
(0.88) 		1,038.4
(40.88)
Average rainy days 2.3 3.0 2.2 1.9 2.2 6.5 9.8 11.1 6.0 0.8 0.5 1.3 47.5
Average
relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST
) 		47 42 34 23 23 39 62 70 59 40 40 46 44
Source: India Meteorological Department[117]

[118]

Demographics

Main article: Punjabis

Languages

See also: Punjab, Pakistan § Languages; and Punjabi dialects and languages
2017 Pakistan Census

The major language is Punjabi, which is written in India with the Gurmukhi script, and in Pakistan using the Shahmukhi script.[119] The Punjabi language has official status and is widely used in education and administration in Indian Punjab, whereas in Pakistani Punjab these roles are instead fulfilled by the Urdu language.

Several languages closely related to Punjabi are spoken in the various parts of the region.

Pothwari.[123]

Linguistic demographics of Punjab Province
Language Percentage
1911[106]: 370 
Punjabi[e] 75.93%
Western Hindi[f]
 15.82%
Western Pahari 4.11%
Rajasthani 3.0%
Balochi 0.29%
Pashto 0.28%
English 0.15%
Other 0.42%

Religions

Main article: Religion in the Punjab

Background

Rig Veda
, the oldest known Hindu text, originated in the Punjab region.

Hinduism is the oldest of the religions practised by Punjabi people, however, the term Hindu was also applied over a vast territory with much regional diversity.[124] The historical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), centered primarily in the worship of Indra.[125][126][127][128] The bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BC,[129] while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. An ancient Indian law book called the Manusmriti, developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BC onward.[130]

Later, the

Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region.[135]

The rise of Sikhism in the 1700s saw some Punjabis, both Hindu and Muslim, accepting the new Sikh faith.[130][136] A number of Punjabis during the colonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.[130]

Colonial era

Main article: Religion in the Punjab § Subregions

A number of Punjabis during the colonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.[137] Additionally during the colonial era, the practice of religious syncretism among Punjabi Muslims and Punjabi Hindus was noted and documented by officials in census reports:

"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab,

Shias... they belong mostly to the Sunar caste and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very strong."[106]
: 130 

— Excerpts from the Census of India (Punjab Province), 1911 AD
Population trends for major religious groups in the Punjab Province of the British India(1881–1941)[138][107]: 46 
Religious
group 		Population
% 1881[g] 		Population
% 1891 		Population
% 1901[g] 		Population
% 1911[g] 		Population
% 1921 		Population
% 1931 		Population
% 1941
Islam 47.6% 47.8% 49.2% 50.8% 51.1% 52.4% 53.2%
Hinduism[h] 43.8% 43.6% 41.8% 36.3% 35.1% 31.7% 30.1%
Sikhism 8.2% 8.2% 8.5% 11.9% 12.4% 14.3% 14.9%
Christianity 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.8% 1.3% 1.5% 1.5%
Other religions / No religion 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
Religious groups in Punjab Province (1881–1941)
Religious
group 		1881[139][140][141][g] 1901[142]: 34 [g] 1911[143]: 27 [144]: 27 [g] 1921[145]: 29  1931[146]: 277  1941[147]: 42 
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 9,872,745 47.58% 12,183,345 49.22% 12,275,477 50.75% 12,813,383 51.05% 14,929,896 52.4% 18,259,744 53.22%
Hinduism [h] 9,095,175 43.84% 10,344,469 41.79% 8,773,621 36.27% 8,799,651 35.06% 9,018,509 31.65% 10,336,549 30.13%
Sikhism 1,706,165 8.22% 2,102,896 8.49% 2,883,729 11.92% 3,107,296 12.38% 4,071,624 14.29% 5,116,185 14.91%
Jainism 42,572 0.21% 49,983 0.2% 46,775 0.19% 41,321 0.16% 43,140 0.15% 45,475 0.13%
Christianity 28,054 0.14% 66,591 0.27% 199,751 0.83% 332,939 1.33% 419,353 1.47% 512,466 1.49%
Buddhism 3,251 0.02% 6,940 0.03% 7,690 0.03% 5,912 0.02% 7,753 0.03% 854 0.002%
Zoroastrianism 413 0.002% 477 0.002% 653 0.003% 526 0.002% 569 0.002% 4,359 0.01%
Judaism — — 24 0.0001% 54 0.0002% 19 0.0001% 13 0% 39 0.0001%
Others 57 0.0003% 12 0% 0 0% 13 0.0001% 0 0% 34,190 0.1%
Total population 20,748,432 100% 24,754,737 100% 24,187,750 100% 25,101,060 100% 28,490,857 100% 34,309,861 100%
Religion in West Punjab (1881–1941)
Religious
group 		1881[139][140][141][148][i] 1901[142]: 34 [149]: 62 [j] 1911[143]: 27 [144]: 27 [k] 1921[145]: 29 [l] 1931[146]: 277 [m] 1941[147]: 42 [n]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 6,201,859 78.09% 7,951,155 76.25% 8,494,314 76.49% 8,975,288 75.49% 10,570,029 75.28% 13,022,160 75.1%
Hinduism [h] 1,449,913 18.26% 1,944,363 18.65% 1,645,758 14.82% 1,797,141 15.12% 1,957,878 13.94% 2,373,466 13.69%
Sikhism 272,908 3.44% 483,999 4.64% 813,441 7.33% 863,091 7.26% 1,180,789 8.41% 1,520,112 8.77%
Christianity 12,992 0.16% 42,371 0.41% 144,514 1.3% 247,030 2.08% 324,730 2.31% 395,311 2.28%
Jainism 4,352 0.05% 5,562 0.05% 5,977 0.05% 5,930 0.05% 6,921 0.05% 9,520 0.05%
Zoroastrianism 354 0.004% 300 0.003% 377 0.003% 309 0.003% 413 0.003% 312 0.002%
Buddhism 0 0% 6 0.0001% 168 0.002% 172 0.001% 32 0.0002% 87 0.001%
Judaism — — 9 0.0001% 36 0.0003% 16 0.0001% 6 0% 7 0%
Others 21 0.0003% 0 0% 0 0% 8 0.0001% 0 0% 19,128 0.11%
Total Population 7,942,399 100% 10,427,765 100% 11,104,585 100% 11,888,985 100% 14,040,798 100% 17,340,103 100%
Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of Punjab, Pakistan and Islamabad Capital Territory.
Religion in East Punjab (1881–1941)
Religious
group 		1881[139][140][141][148][o][g] 1901[142]: 34 [149]: 62 [p][g] 1911[143]: 27 [144]: 27 [q][g] 1921[145]: 29 [r] 1931[146]: 277 [s] 1941[147]: 42 [t]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Hinduism [h] 7,645,262 59.7% 8,400,106 58.63% 7,127,863 54.48% 7,002,510 53% 7,060,631 48.86% 7,963,083 46.93%
Islam 3,670,886 28.67% 4,232,190 29.54% 3,781,163 28.9% 3,838,095 29.05% 4,359,867 30.17% 5,237,584 30.86%
Sikhism 1,433,257 11.19% 1,618,897 11.3% 2,070,288 15.82% 2,244,205 16.99% 2,890,835 20.01% 3,596,073 21.19%
Jainism 38,220 0.3% 44,421 0.31% 40,798 0.31% 35,391 0.27% 36,219 0.25% 35,955 0.21%
Christianity 15,062 0.12% 24,220 0.17% 55,237 0.42% 85,909 0.65% 94,623 0.65% 117,155 0.69%
Buddhism 3,251 0.03% 6,934 0.05% 7,522 0.06% 5,740 0.04% 7,721 0.05% 767 0.005%
Zoroastrianism 59 0.0005% 177 0.001% 276 0.002% 217 0.002% 156 0.001% 4,047 0.02%
Judaism — — 15 0.0001% 18 0.0001% 3 0% 7 0% 32 0.0002%
Others 36 0.0003% 12 0.0001% 0 0% 5 0% 0 0% 15,062 0.09%
Total Population 12,806,033 100% 14,326,972 100% 13,083,165 100% 13,212,075 100% 14,450,059 100% 16,969,758 100%
Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh.
Religious groups in the Indo—Gangetic Plain West geographical division of Punjab Province (1881–1941)
Religious
group 		1881[139][140][141] 1901[142]: 34  1911[143]: 27 [144]: 27  1921[145]: 29  1931[146]: 277  1941[147]: 42 
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Hinduism [h] 4,975,901 48.94% 5,825,964 48.64% 4,790,624 43.44% 4,735,960 41.37% 4,709,545 36.59% 5,314,610 34.43%
Islam 3,751,891 36.9% 4,481,366 37.42% 4,144,971 37.59% 4,350,186 38% 5,112,215 39.72% 6,247,791 40.48%
Sikhism 1,390,873 13.68% 1,605,457 13.4% 1,993,750 18.08% 2,186,429 19.1% 2,816,785 21.88% 3,576,659 23.17%
Jainism 36,479 0.36% 41,877 0.35% 39,111 0.35% 33,515 0.29% 34,806 0.27% 34,744 0.23%
Christianity 11,729 0.12% 22,103 0.18% 58,462 0.53% 140,104 1.22% 198,081 1.54% 247,028 1.6%
Zoroastrianism 139 0% 299 0% 412 0% 318 0% 314 0% 235 0%
Buddhism 1 0% 3 0% 132 0% 184 0% 23 0% 39 0%
Judaism — — 19 0% 28 0% 14 0% 5 0% 30 0%
Others 49 0% 12 0% 0 0% 6 0% 0 0% 14,844 0.1%
Total population[u] 10,167,062 100% 11,977,100 100% 11,027,490 100% 11,446,716 100% 12,871,774 100% 15,435,980 100%

The Indo−Gangetic Plain West geographical division included Hisar district, Loharu State, Rohtak district, Dujana State, Gurgaon district, Pataudi State, Delhi, Karnal district, Jalandhar district, Kapurthala State, Ludhiana district, Malerkotla State, Firozpur district, Faridkot State, Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Lahore District, Amritsar district, Gujranwala District, and Sheikhupura District.[106]: 2 [107]: 4 

Religious groups in the Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province (1881–1941)
Religious
group 		1881[139][140][141] 1901[142]: 34  1911[143]: 27 [144]: 27  1921[145]: 29  1931[146]: 277  1941[147]: 42 
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Hinduism [h] 1,458,481 94.74% 1,598,853 94.6% 1,630,084 94.53% 1,642,176 94.5% 1,729,008 94.42% 1,929,634 94.76%
Islam 70,642 4.59% 76,480 4.53% 74,205 4.3% 77,425 4.46% 82,711 4.52% 87,485 4.3%
Christianity 3,840 0.25% 3,415 0.2% 4,400 0.26% 4,471 0.26% 2,586 0.14% 2,129 0.1%
Buddhism 3,250 0.21% 6,931 0.41% 7,518 0.44% 5,718 0.33% 7,705 0.42% 614 0.03%
Sikhism 2,680 0.17% 3,897 0.23% 7,894 0.46% 7,610 0.44% 8,948 0.49% 12,245 0.6%
Jainism 536 0.03% 483 0.03% 358 0.02% 356 0.02% 291 0.02% 425 0.02%
Zoroastrianism 4 0% 7 0% 18 0% 40 0% 3 0% 3,895 0.19%
Judaism — — 0 0% 3 0% 1 0% 1 0% 0 0%
Others 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 4 0% 0 0% 1 0%
Total population[u] 1,539,433 100% 1,690,066 100% 1,724,480 100% 1,737,801 100% 1,831,253 100% 2,036,428 100%

The Himalayan geographical division included

Simla Hill States, Bilaspur State, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State.[106]: 2 [107]
: 4 

Religious groups in the Sub—Himalayan geographical division of Punjab Province (1881–1941)
Religious
group 		1881[139][140][141] 1901[142]: 34  1911[143]: 27 [144]: 27  1921[145]: 29  1931[146]: 277  1941[147]: 42 
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 3,511,174 58.8% 3,741,759 60.62% 3,551,989 61.19% 3,587,246 61.44% 4,009,166 61.99% 4,751,911 62.32%
Hinduism [h] 2,159,634 36.17% 2,042,505 33.09% 1,588,097 27.36% 1,556,703 26.66% 1,565,034 24.2% 1,799,915 23.6%
Sikhism 284,592 4.77% 350,587 5.68% 565,596 9.74% 570,759 9.78% 753,168 11.65% 906,802 11.89%
Christianity 10,363 0.17% 29,930 0.48% 92,524 1.59% 117,172 2.01% 132,500 2.05% 155,386 2.04%
Jainism 5,231 0.09% 7,278 0.12% 6,695 0.12% 6,866 0.12% 7,299 0.11% 9,172 0.12%
Zoroastrianism 200 0% 117 0% 152 0% 111 0% 76 0% 141 0%
Buddhism 0 0% 6 0% 11 0% 8 0% 22 0% 171 0%
Judaism — — 5 0% 17 0% 1 0% 7 0% 6 0%
Others 1 0% 0 0% 0 0% 3 0% 0 0% 1,681 0.02%
Total population[u] 5,971,195 100% 6,172,187 100% 5,805,081 100% 5,838,869 100% 6,467,272 100% 7,625,185 100%

The Sub−Himalayan geographical division included

Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District.[106]: 2 [107]
: 4 

Religious groups in the North—West Dry Area geographical division of Punjab Province (1881–1941)
Religious
group 		1881[139][140][141] 1901[142]: 34  1911[143]: 27 [144]: 27  1921[145]: 29  1931[146]: 277  1941[147]: 42 
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 2,539,038 82.68% 3,883,740 79.01% 4,504,312 80% 4,798,526 78.95% 5,725,804 78.22% 7,172,557 77.86%
Hinduism [h] 501,159 16.32% 877,147 17.84% 764,816 13.58% 864,812 14.23% 1,014,922 13.86% 1,292,390 14.03%
Sikhism 28,020 0.91% 142,955 2.91% 316,489 5.62% 342,498 5.64% 492,723 6.73% 620,479 6.74%
Christianity 2,122 0.07% 11,143 0.23% 44,365 0.79% 71,192 1.17% 86,186 1.18% 107,923 1.17%
Jainism 326 0.01% 345 0.01% 611 0.01% 584 0.01% 744 0.01% 1,134 0.01%
Zoroastrianism 70 0% 54 0% 71 0% 57 0% 176 0% 88 0%
Buddhism 0 0% 0 0% 29 0% 2 0% 3 0% 30 0%
Judaism — — 0 0% 6 0% 3 0% 0 0% 3 0%
Others 7 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 17,664 0.19%
Total population[u] 3,070,742 100% 4,915,384 100% 5,630,699 100% 6,077,674 100% 7,320,558 100% 9,212,268 100%

The North−West Dry Area geographical division included

Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, Dera Ghazi Khan District, and the Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract.[106]: 2 [107]
: 4 

Post-partition

In the present-day, the vast majority of Pakistani Punjabis are Sunni Muslim by faith, but also include significant minority faiths, such as Shia Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and Christians.

Sikhism, founded by

Hindu, with the remaining population including Muslims, Christians, and Jains.[150] Punjab state contains the holy Sikh cities of Amritsar, Anandpur Sahib, Tarn Taran Sahib, Fatehgarh Sahib and Chamkaur Sahib
.

The Punjab was home to several Sufi saints, and Sufism is well established in the region.[151] Also, Kirpal Singh revered the Sikh Gurus as saints.[152]

Religious groups in the Punjab Region (
2017 Census of Pakistan)[153][154][155][a]
Religious
group 		Punjab
Region 		Punjab
(Pakistan)[153] 		Punjab
(India)[154] 		Haryana[155] Delhi[155] Himachal
Pradesh[155] 		Islamabad[153] Chandigarh[155]
Total
population 		Percentage Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 114,130,322 60.13% 107,541,602 97.77% 535,489 1.93% 1,781,342 7.03% 2,158,684 12.86% 149,881 2.18% 1,911,877 95.43% 51,447 4.87%
Hinduism 54,159,083 28.54% 211,641 0.19% 10,678,138 38.49% 22,171,128 87.46% 13,712,100 81.68% 6,532,765 95.17% 737 0.04% 852,574 80.78%
Sikhism 18,037,312 9.5% — — 16,004,754 57.69% 1,243,752 4.91% 570,581 3.4% 79,896 1.16% — — 138,329 13.11%
Christianity 2,715,952 1.43% 2,063,063 1.88% 348,230 1.26% 50,353 0.2% 146,093 0.87% 12,646 0.18% 86,847 4.34% 8,720 0.83%
Jainism 267,649 0.14% — — 45,040 0.16% 52,613 0.21% 166,231 0.99% 1,805 0.03% — — 1,960 0.19%
Ahmadiyya 160,759 0.08% 158,021 0.14% — — — — — — — — 2,738 0.14% — —
Buddhism 139,019 0.07% — — 33,237 0.12% 7,514 0.03% 18,449 0.11% 78,659 1.15% — — 1,160 0.11%
Others 185,720 0.1% 15,328 0.01% 98,450 0.35% 44,760 0.18% 15,803 0.09% 8,950 0.13% 1,169 0.06% 1,260 0.12%
Total population 189,795,816 100% 109,989,655 100% 27,743,338 100% 25,351,462 100% 16,787,941 100% 6,864,602 100% 2,003,368 100% 1,055,450 100%

Tribes

See also: List of Punjabi tribes
Jats in Delhi (1868)
Rajputs in Delhi (1868)
Brahmin in Lahore (c. 1799–1849)
Left to right: Gurkha, Brahmin and Shudra (Chuhra-Chamar) in Shimla (1868)
Arains in Lahore (1868)
Tarkhans in Lahore (c. 1862–1872)
Gujjars in Delhi (c. 1859–1869)
Arora in Lahore (c. 1862–1872)
Kumhars in Lahore (c. 1859–1869)

The Punjab region is diverse. Historic census reports taken in the colonial era details the main castes are represented, alongside numerous subcastes and tribes (also known as Jāti or Barādarī), formed parts of the various ethnic groups in the region, contemporarily known as Punjabis, Saraikis, Haryanvis, Hindkowans, Dogras, Paharis, and more.

Tribes of Punjab Province (1881–1931)[106]: 478 [156]: 348 [157]: 193–254 [158]: 367 [159]: 281–309 
Tribe 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Jat 4,223,885 20.31% 4,500,340 19.64% 4,884,285 20.04% 4,891,060 20.56% 5,453,747 21.73% 6,070,032 21.31%
Rajput 1,648,426 7.92% 1,747,989 7.63% 1,784,402 7.32% 1,586,274 6.67% 1,853,025 7.38% 2,351,650 8.25%
Brahman 1,040,771 5% 1,069,132 4.67% 1,077,252 4.42% 985,901 4.14% 994,529 3.96% 1,058,598 3.72%
Chuhra 1,039,039 5% 1,175,504 5.13% 1,175,003 4.82% 912,998 3.84% 750,596 2.99% 681,359 2.39%
Chamar 1,033,727 4.97% 1,147,913 5.01% 1,172,118 4.81% 1,075,941 4.52% 1,134,700 4.52% 1,102,465 3.87%
Arain 795,471 3.82% 890,264 3.88% 1,003,698 4.12% 973,888 4.09% 1,086,455 4.33% 1,329,312 4.67%
Julaha 593,199 2.85% 620,401 2.71% 651,800 2.67% 626,960 2.64% 643,403 2.56% 672,243 2.36%
Tarkhan 564,385 2.71% 621,718 2.71% 675,361 2.77% 637,971 2.68% 614,912 2.45% 654,053 2.3%
Gujjar 539,251 2.59% 600,198 2.62% 611,904 2.51% 595,598 2.5% 627,451 2.5% 696,442 2.44%
Arora 538,465 2.59% 603,131 2.63% 647,945 2.66% 667,943 2.81% 707,495 2.82% 769,694 2.7%
Kumhar 465,676 2.24% 515,331 2.25% 561,298 2.3% 542,906 2.28% 570,158 2.27% 62,0402 2.18%
Bania 437,000 2.1% 442,000 1.93% 452,000 1.85% 404,000 1.7% 374,169 1.49% — —
Jhinwar 418,499 2.01% 458,702 2% 450,362 1.85% 331,951 1.4% 371,418 1.48% 370,168 1.3%
Khatri 392,413 1.89% 418,517 1.83% 433,579 1.78% 423,704 1.78% 452,902 1.8% 516,207 1.81%
Awan 350,848 1.69% 389,402 1.7% 420,504 1.73% 425,450 1.79% 439,975 1.75% 538,760 1.89%
Kanet 346,000 1.66% 370,000 1.61% 390,000 1.6% 404,000 1.7% 288,159 1.15% 305,814 1.07%
Mochi 334,034 1.61% 384,179 1.68% 408,314 1.68% 410,977 1.73% 429,242 1.71% 466,832 1.64%
Baloch 331,851 1.6% 383,138 1.67% 466,645 1.92% 530,976 2.23% 531,084 2.12% 624,691 2.19%
Nai 323,703 1.56% 371,144 1.62% 370,019 1.52% 344,845 1.45% 360,653 1.44% 380,657 1.34%
Sheikh
 293,606 1.41% 287,778 1.26% 264,656 1.09% 276,687 1.16% 244,800 0.98% 407,576 1.43%
Lohar 291,506 1.4% 323,420 1.41% 347,099 1.42% 319,847 1.34% 322,195 1.28% 333,910 1.17%
Teli 250,544 1.2% 291,513 1.27% 309,433 1.27% 284,505 1.2% 305,122 1.22% 339,124 1.19%
Pathan 210,613 1.01% 221,262 0.97% 246,790 1.01% 272,547 1.15% 261,729 1.04% 345,438 1.21%
Sayyid 200,728 0.96% 217,034 0.95% 230,802 0.95% 239,160 1.01% 247,087 0.98% 293,313 1.03%
Mirasi 192,107 0.92% 230,700 1.01% 244,506 1% 223,093 0.94% 232,280 0.93% 242,685 0.85%
Machhi 167,882 0.81% 196,574 0.86% 236,122 0.97% 239,702 1.01% 280,956 1.12% 314,791 1.1%
Ahir 165,878 0.8% 188,838 0.82% 197,805 0.81% 201,299 0.85% 201,539 0.8% 221,897 0.78%
Kashmiri 149,733 0.72% 141,280 0.62% 189,878 0.78% 175,334 0.74% 166,449 0.66% 200,066 0.7%
Saini 147,183 0.71% 120,507 0.53% 121,722 0.5% 107,759 0.45% 120,376 0.48% 157,301 0.55%
Sunar 145,903 0.7% 164,087 0.72% 174,628 0.72% 155,993 0.66% 127,090 0.51% 159,655 0.56%
Kamboh 129,468 0.62% 150,646 0.66% 173,780 0.71% 171,536 0.72% 180,870 0.72% 239,385 0.84%
Dhobi 123,767 0.6% 139,421 0.61% 142,342 0.58% 151,566 0.64% 163,908 0.65% 174,519 0.61%
Meo 112,566 0.54% 115,916 0.51% 133,300 0.55% 120,752 0.51% 111,564 0.44% 124,821 0.44%
Faqir 111,995 0.54% 300,214 1.31% 362,266 1.49% 262,511 1.1% 270,070 1.08% 283,634 1%
Ghirath 110,507 0.53% 118,631 0.52% 121,718 0.5% 121,107 0.51% 117,949 0.47% 122,785 0.43%
Chhimba
 100,448 0.48% 141,819 0.62% 147,152 0.6% 124,090 0.52% 120,695 0.48% 92,491 0.32%
Qassab 92,571 0.45% 109,435 0.48% 114,158 0.47% 117,363 0.49% 120,820 0.48% 127,198 0.45%
Rathi 82,957 0.4% 100,656 0.44% 37,793 0.16% 97,763 0.41% 118,015 0.47% 134,093 0.47%
Dagi & Koli 78,559 0.38% 167,772 0.73% 153,990 0.63% 172,269 0.72% 165,159 0.66% 182,056 0.64%
Mughal 92,000 0.44% 118,000 0.51% 98,000 0.4% 99,000 0.42% 88,951 0.35% — —
Jogi-Rawal 90,000 0.43% 91,000 0.4% 76,000 0.31% 83,000 0.35% 80,577 0.32% — —
Dumna 66,169 0.32% 64,046 0.28% 53,394 0.22% 72,250 0.3% 36,669 0.15% 32,055 0.11%
Dhanuk 66,000 0.32% 74,000 0.32% 77,000 0.32% 83,000 0.35% 87,278 0.35% — —
Dogar 63,000 0.01% 70,000 0.01% 75,000 0.01% 68,000 0.29% 74,369 0.3% — —
Khoja 62,000 0.3% 90,000 0.39% 99,000 0.41% 63,000 0.26% 87,461 0.35% — —
Mallah 62,000 0.3% 77,000 0.34% 73,000 0.3% 78,000 0.33% 74,233 0.3% — —
Mali 58,672 0.28% 95,989 0.42% 105,956 0.43% 96,883 0.41% 92,933 0.37% 72,299 0.25%
Bharai 56,000 0.27% 67,000 0.29% 66,000 0.27% 58,000 0.24% 61,721 0.25% — —
Barwala 55,000 0.26% 64,000 0.28% 69,000 0.28% 64,000 0.27% 65,907 0.26% — —
Mahtam 50,313 0.24% 56,982 0.25% 82,719 0.34% 81,805 0.34% 94,325 0.38% 64,004 0.22%
Labana 47,000 0.23% 55,000 0.24% 56,000 0.23% 58,000 0.24% 56,316 0.22% — —
Megh 37,373 0.18% 41,068 0.18% 44,315 0.18% 39,549 0.17% 30,465 0.12% 22,539 0.08%
Khokhar 36,000 0.17% 130,000 0.57% 108,000 0.44% 60,000 0.25% 69,169 0.28% — —
Darzi 30,190 0.15% 36,919 0.16% 39,164 0.16% 35,508 0.15% 38,256 0.15% 45,688 0.16%
Bawaria
 22,013 0.11% 26,420 0.12% 29,112 0.12% 32,849 0.14% 34,807 0.14% 32,508 0.11%
Sansi 19,920 0.1% 22,218 0.1% 26,000 0.11% 24,439 0.1% 17,402 0.07% 28,262 0.1%
Od 15,652 0.08% 22,450 0.1% 26,160 0.11% 31,690 0.13% 28,502 0.11% 32,719 0.11%
Sarera 10,792 0.05% 11,366 0.05% 9,587 0.04% 10,743 0.05% 9,873 0.04% 11,230 0.04%
Pakhiwara 3,741 0.02% 3,674 0.02% 3,595 0.01% 3,711 0.02% 2,801 0.01% 3,100 0.01%
Ghosi
 2,221 0.01% 2,652 0.01% 3,012 0.01% 2,419 0.01% 502 0% 3,836 0.01%
Harni 1,318 0.01% 4,157 0.02% 3,462 0.01% 3,360 0.01% 2,988 0.01% 3,387 0.01%
Maliar — — — — 81,000 0.33% 90,000 0.38% 88,755 0.35% — —
Mussalli — — — — 57,367 0.24% 309,543 1.3% 323,549 1.29% 412,295 1.45%
Qureshi — — — — 53,000 0.22% 71,000 0.3% 97,625 0.39% — —
Aggarwal — — — — — — 339,494 1.43% 349,322 1.39% 373,014 1.31%
Bagaria — — — — — — 1,262 0.01% 1,619 0.01% 2,446 0.01%
Total population 20,800,995 100% 22,915,894 100% 24,367,113 100% 23,791,841 100% 25,101,514 100% 28,490,869 100%

Economy

Main articles:
Economy of Punjab, Pakistan and Economy of Punjab, India

The historical region of Punjab produces a relatively high proportion of the food output from India and Pakistan.[citation needed] The region has been used for extensive wheat farming. In addition, rice, cotton, sugarcane, fruit, and vegetables are also grown.[160]

The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan's GDP. Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab is considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries. The Indian state of Punjab is currently the 16th richest state or the eighth richest large state of India. Pakistani Punjab produces 68% of Pakistan's foodgrain production.[161] Its share of Pakistan's GDP has historically ranged from 51.8% to 54.7%.[162]

Called "The Granary of India" or "The Bread Basket of India", Indian Punjab produces 1% of the

world's rice, 2% of its wheat, and 2% of its cotton.[160] In 2001, it was recorded that farmers made up 39% of Indian Punjab's workforce.[163] In the Punjab region of Pakistan, 42.3% of the labour force is engaged in the agriculture sector.[164]

Alternatively, Punjab is also adding to the economy with the increase in employment of Punjab youth in the private sector. Government schemes such as 'Ghar Ghar Rozgar and Karobar Mission' have brought enhanced employability in the private sector. As of October 2019, more than 32,000 youths have been placed in different jobs and 12,000 have been skill-trained.[165]

See also

Notes

  1. ^
    2017 Pakistani census with religious data amalgamated from Punjab, India, Punjab, Pakistan, Haryana, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Islamabad, and Chandigarh.[153][154][155]
  2. ^ From Persian پنج panj—meaning literally "five"—and آب âb—meaning literally "water" or "river". Thus, Panjâb, پنجاب (from Panj-Âb, پنج‌آب) translates as "five waters".[2]
  3. ^ Craterus supervised the construction. These cities are yet to be identified.
  4. ^ Western Punjabi languages and dialects including Saraiki, Hindko and Pahari-Pothwari, and other related languages or dialects
  5. Standard Punjabi: 58.34%
    Lahnda:[d]
    17.59%
  6. ^ Including Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), Braj Bhasha, Haryanvi, and other related languages or dialects
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Including Delhi district, which was later made into a separate province in 1912, following the transfer from Calcutta to Delhi as capital of India in 1911.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h 1931 & 1941 censuses: Including Ad-Dharmis
  9. ^ 1881 figure taken from census data by combining the total population of all districts (Lahore, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Montgomery, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), and one princely state (Bahawalpur) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1881 census data here: [139][140][141]
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan.
  10. Lyallpur (inscribed as the Chenab Colony on the 1901 census), Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1901 census data here: [142]: 34 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan
    .
  11. Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1911 census data here: [143]: 27 [144]: 27 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan
    .
  12. Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1921 census data here: [145]: 29 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan
    .
  13. Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1931 census data here: [146]: 277 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan
    .
  14. Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargargh, Dera Ghazi Khan), one tehsil (Shakargarh – then part of Gurdaspur District), one princely state (Bahawalpur), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the Radcliffe Line. See 1941 census data here: [147]: 42 
    Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included Bahawalpur. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is Punjab, Pakistan
    .
  15. Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh
    .
  16. Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh
    .
  17. Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh
    .
  18. Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh
    .
  19. Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh
    .
  20. Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh, and Bilaspur State. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are Punjab, India, Chandigarh, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh
    .
  21. ^ a b c d See total breakdowns in tables on Religion in the Punjab page.

References

  1. ^ "Elections in Bihar, Campaigning in Punjab to Woo Bihari Migrants". 4 October 2015. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2024. Punjab, as per official estimates, is home to some two million migrants from Bihar. They are engaged in various jobs and occupations in Punjab. Of this, over 1.3 million are living in and around the industrial hub of Ludhiana.
  2. ^ a b H K Manmohan Siṅgh. "The Punjab". The Encyclopedia of Sikhism, Editor-in-Chief Harbans Singh. Punjabi University, Patiala. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
  3. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7735-4070-5
    .
  4. ISBN 978-81-208-0433-3. Archived
    from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023. Rhys Davids [Buddhist India p. 267] points out that 'it was from the Panjab that Chandragupta recruited the nucleus of the force with which he besieged and conquered Dhana Nanda'
  5. ISBN 978-1-108-00941-6
    . Audumbaras, Trigartas, Kunindas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas - began to coin in the first century BC, which means that they had become independent kingdoms or republics; but the coins do not all tell the same story. Those of the two sounthernmost peoples begin somewhere about 100 BC and bear the legends 'Victory of the Arjunayanas' and (on their copper issue) 'Victory of the Yaudheyas', which point to their having won independence by the sword.
  6. ISBN 978-81-208-0026-7. Archived
    from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
  7. ISBN 978-3-382-11929-4. Archived
    from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
  8. ISBN 978-81-206-0942-6. Archived
    from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  9. ISBN 978-0520325128
    . The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...
  10. ^ Fauja Singh (1972). History of the Punjab: A.D. 1000-1526. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. p. 152. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023. The Tughlaqs had close links with the Punjab . According to Firishta and Sujan Rai Bhandari, Tughlaq, the founder of the dynasty, was born in the Punjab to a Jat mother
  11. ^
    ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
  12. ISBN 978-93-83064-41-0
    .
  13. Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.)
    , vol. 20.
  14. ISBN 978-1-61530-202-4
    . The word's origin can perhaps be traced to panca nada, Sanskrit for "five rivers" and the name of a region mentioned in the ancient epic the Mahabharata.
  15. ISBN 978-81-7380-990-3
    . The word Punjab is a compound of two words-Panj (Five) and aab (Water), thus signifying the land of five waters or rivers. This origin can perhaps be traced to panch nada, Sanskrit for "Five rivers" the word used before the advent of Muslims with a knowledge of Persian to describe the meeting point of the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers, before they joined the Indus.
  16. ISBN 978-0-7556-2459-1
    .
  17. ^ Lassen, Christian. 1827. Commentatio Geographica atque Historica de Pentapotamia Indica Archived 18 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine [A Geographical and Historical Commentary on Indian Pentapotamia]. Weber. p. 4: "That part of India which today we call by the Persian name ''Penjab'' is named Panchanada in the sacred language of the Indians; either of which names may be rendered in Greek by Πενταποταμια. The Persian origin of the former name is not at all in doubt, although the words of which it is composed are both Indian and Persian.... But, in truth, that final word is never, to my knowledge, used by the Indians in proper names compounded in this way; on the other hand, there exist multiple Persian names which end with that word, e.g., Doab and Nilab. Therefore, it is probable that the name Penjab, which is today found in all geographical books, is of more recent origin and is to be attributed to the Muslim kings of India, among whom the Persian language was mostly in use. That the Indian name Panchanada is ancient and genuine is evident from the fact that it is already seen in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the most ancient Indian poems, and that no other exists in addition to it among the Indians; for Panchála, which English translations of the Ramayana render with Penjab...is the name of another region, entirely distinct from Pentapotamia...."[whose translation?]
  18. ^ Latif, Syad Muhammad (1891). History of the Panjáb from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Time. Calcultta Central Press Company. p. 1. The Panjáb, the Pentapotamia of the Greek historians, the north-western region of the empire of Hindostán, derives its name from two Persian words, panj (five), an áb (water), having reference to the five rivers which confer on the country its distinguishing features."
  19. ^ Khalid, Kanwal (2015). "Lahore of Pre Historic Era" (PDF). Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan. 52 (2): 73. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2019. The earliest mention of five rivers in the collective sense was found in Yajurveda and a word Panchananda was used, which is a Sanskrit word to describe a land where five rivers meet. [...] In the later period, the word Pentapotamia was used by the Greeks to identify this land. (Penta means 5 and potamia, water ___ the land of five rivers) Muslim Historians implied the word "Punjab" for this region. Again, it was not a new word because in Persian-speaking areas, there are references of this name given to any particular place where five rivers or lakes meet.
  20. ^
    ISBN 978-1-59884-659-1. Archived
    from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  21. ^ Buddha Parkash, Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab, p 36.
  22. ^ Joshi, L. M., and Fauja Singh. History of Panjab, Vol I. p. 4.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "The campaign of the Hydaspes". Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–130.
  24. ^ Holt, Frank Lee (2003). Alexander the Great and the mystery of the elephant medallions. University of California Press.
  25. ^ Rogers, p.200
  26. ^ a b Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean". Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press.
  27. ISBN 9781441193797
    .
  28. ^ Roy 2004, pp. 23–28.
  29. ISBN 9781405112109
    .
  30. ISBN 978-81-85229-92-8
    .
  31. JSTOR 41688339. Archived
    from the original on 9 November 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
  32. ISBN 978-81-208-0433-3. Archived
    from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  33. ISBN 978-81-7022-763-2. Archived
    from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  34. ^ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1969). Corporate Life in Ancient India. Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay. p. 222. Archived from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  35. ISBN 978-81-208-0433-3. Archived
    from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  36. ^ Rahman, Abdul (2002). "New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis" (PDF). Ancient Pakistan. XV: 37–42. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2023. The Hindu Śāhis were therefore neither Bhattis, or Janjuas, nor Brahmans. They were simply Uḍis/Oḍis. It can now be seen that the term Hindu Śāhi is a misnomer and, based as it is merely upon religious discrimination, should be discarded and forgotten. The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Śāhi dynasty.
  37. ^ Meister, Michael W. (2005). "The Problem of Platform Extensions at Kafirkot North" (PDF). Ancient Pakistan. XVI: 41–48. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2023. Rehman (2002: 41) makes a good case for calling the Hindu Śāhis by a more accurate name, "Uḍi Śāhis".
  38. ^ a b c d e f Rehman 1976.
  39. ^ Rehman 1976, pp. 48–50.
  40. ISBN 978-0520325128
    . The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...
  41. ISBN 978-81-207-0617-0. Archived
    from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  42. ^ a b William Lowe (Translator), Muntakhabu-t-tawārīkh, p. 296, at Google Books, Volume 1, pages 296-301
  43. ^ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 233-234
  44. ^ Muḥammad ibn Tughluq Archived 27 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopædia Britannica
  45. ^ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 236–237
  46. ^ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 235–240
  47. ^ Jackson 2003.
  48. ^ Vincent A Smith, The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, p. 217, at Google Books, Chapter 2, pp. 242–248, Oxford University Press
  49. ^ Crooke, William (1890). An Ethnographical Hand-book for the N.-W. Provinces and Oudh. North-Western provinces and Oudh government Press. p. 144. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  50. ^ Proceedings - Punjab History Conference. Publication Bureau, Punjab University. 1966. p. 82. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  51. ISBN 978-0-415-32919-4. Archived
    from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  52. ^ Haque, Mohammed Anwarul (1980). Muslim Administration in Orissa, 1568-1751 A.D. Punthi Pustak. p. 20. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  53. ISBN 978-81-7072-029-4. Archived
    from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  54. ISBN 978-81-206-0942-6. Archived
    from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
  55. ISBN 978-0520325128
    .
  56. ^ Jackson 2003, p. 103.
  57. ^ a b Kumar 2020, p. 583.
  58. ISBN 9781615301225. Archived
    from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  59. ISBN 9788121903646. Archived
    from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  60. ^ Proceedings:Volume 55. Indian History Congress. 1995. p. 216. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  61. ^ Mahajan 2007, p. 237.
  62. ^ Rajasthan [district Gazetteers] Bharatpur. Printed at Government Central Press. 1971. p. 52. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  63. ISBN 978-81-215-0227-6. Archived
    from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023. This considerably depleted Iqbal's strength and encouraged Khizr Khan to collect his forces of Multan, Deopalpur and the Punjab
  64. ISBN 978-81-219-0364-6. Archived
    from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  65. ISBN 978-0-8108-5503-8. Archived
    from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  66. ISBN 978-81-215-0227-6. Archived
    from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023. Hoshang tried his luck against Sultan of Delhi but he was beaten back by Mubarak Shah Saiyyad to whom he had to pay a handsome tribute
  67. ISBN 978-81-215-0227-6. Archived
    from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  68. ^ Mahajan 2007, p. 244.
  69. JSTOR 44140224. Archived
    from the original on 28 July 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
  70. ^ Mubārak, A.F.; Blochmann, H. (1891). The Ain I Akbari. Bibliotheca Indica. Asiatic Society of Bengal. p. 321. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
  71. OCLC 2404471
    .
  72. ISBN 978-81-85054-28-5
    . Retrieved 28 July 2022.
  73. ^ Journal of Central Asia. Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Quaid-i-Azam University. 1992. p. 84. Retrieved 30 July 2022. Sadullah Khan was the son of Amir Bakhsh a cultivator of Chiniot . He belongs to Jat family. He was born on Thursday, the 10th Safar 1000 A.H./1591 A.C.
  74. ISBN 978-969-407-130-5
    . Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  75. ^
    JSTOR 44141552. Archived
    from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  76. OCLC 69022179. Archived
    from the original on 18 November 2022. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  77. ISBN 978-81-89093-06-8
    .
  78. OL 30677644M
    . Retrieved 16 April 2024.
  79. ^ "Ranjit Singh: A Secular Sikh Sovereign by K.S. Duggal. (Date:1989. ISBN 8170172446)". Exoticindiaart.com. 3 September 2015. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  80. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ranjit Singh" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 892.
  81. ISBN 0-521-63764-3. Archived
    from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2019.
  82. ^ Amarinder Singh's The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar
  83. ISBN 0-521-63764-3
    .
  84. ^
    ISBN 978-0-14-004752-3
    .
  85. ^ "Pakistan Geotagging: Partition of Punjab in 1947". 3 October 2014. Archived from the original on 8 February 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016.. Daily Times (10 May 2012). Retrieved 12 July 2013.
  86. S2CID 147110854
    . The number of casualties remains a matter of dispute, with figures being claimed that range from 200,000 to 2 million victims.
  87. ISBN 978-0415565660
    .
  88. ^ Butalia, Urvashi (2000). The Other Side of Silence: Voices From the Partition of India. Duke University Press. Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
  89. ISBN 978-1134378258
    .
  90. ^ Dyson 2018, pp. 188–189.
  91. ISBN 978-0-521-63764-0. Archived
    from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2019.
  92. ISBN 978-81-317-1818-6
    .
  93. ISBN 9781526777249. Archived
    from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023. The Sikh kingdom expanded from Tibet in the east to Kashmir in the west and from Sind in the south to the Khyber Pass in the north, an area of 200,000 square miles
  94. ISBN 9780300186819. Archived
    from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023. ..the Sikh state encompassed over 200,000 square miles (518,000 sq km)
  95. ISBN 9780210271872. Archived
    from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023. ..into existence a kingdom of the Punjab of over 200,000 square miles
  96. ISBN 978-0-7914-2063-8
    .
  97. ISBN 978-0-415-59997-9
    .
  98. ISBN 9789386369390
    .
  99. ^ Deng, Jonathan M. (2010). "Frontier: The Making of the Northern and Eastern Border in Ladakh From 1834 to the Present". SIT Digital Collections Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. 920. Archived from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
  100. ^ The Khyber Pass: A History of Empire and Invasion, (Docherty, p. 187)
  101. ^ The Khyber Pass: A History of Empire and Invasion, (Docherty, pp. 185–187)
  102. ISBN 978-1-74104542-0
    .
  103. OCLC 221246072
    .
  104. ISBN 9788170174103
    .
  105. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Punjab" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 653.
  106. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 1, Report". Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
  107. ^ a b c d e f "CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 VOLUME VI PUNJAB". Archived from the original on 11 October 2022. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  108. ^ a b Pritam Singh, Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy, Routledge, 19 February 2008, p.54
  109. ^ "Provincial Assembly of the Punjab". Archived from the original on 7 February 2017. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
  110. ^ "Climate of Punjab". MapsofIndia.com. 7 March 2013. Archived from the original on 30 October 2012.
  111. ^ "The Climate & Landscape of the Punjab – Fact Sheet" (PDF). Royal Geographical Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 April 2014.
  112. ^ "Islamabad Climate Normals 1961-1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
  113. ^ "Islamabad Climate Normals 1991–2020". World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  114. ^ "Extremes of Islamabad". Pakistan Meteorological Department. Retrieved 1 February 2015.
  115. ^ "Lahore Climate Normals 1991–2020". World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
  116. ^ "Extremes of Lahore". Pakistan Meteorological Department. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
  117. ^ "IMD - CDSP". cdsp.imdpune.gov.in. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
  118. ^ "Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)" (PDF). India Meteorological Department. December 2016. p. M64. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2020.
  119. ^ "Punjabi language, alphabets and pronunciation". Archived from the original on 1 November 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  120. ^ "Dogri". lisindia.ciil.org. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
  121. ^ "Language | District Kangra, Government of Himachal Pradesh | India". Archived from the original on 16 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
  122. ^ "Bagri of Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana: A Sociolinguistic Survey". SIL International. 28 January 2013. Archived from the original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
  123. ^ Shackle 1979, p. 198.
  124. ISBN 978-0-7735-4070-5
    .
  125. ^ Wheeler, James Talboys (1874). The History of India from the Earliest Ages: Hindu Buddhist Brahmanical revival. N. Trübner. p. 330. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022. The Punjab, to say the least, was less Brahmanical. It was an ancient centre of the worship of Indra, who was always regarded as an enemy by the Bráhmans; and it was also a stronghold of Buddhism.
  126. ISBN 978-1-136-38301-4. Archived
    from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022. In the settlements of the Punjab, Indra thus advanced to the first place among the Vedic divinities.
  127. ISBN 978-1-108-42811-8. Archived
    from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023. The Rig Veda and the Upanishads, which belonged to the Vedic religion, were a precursor of Hinduism, both of which were composed in Punjab.
  128. ^ Michaels (2004, p. 38): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."
    Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992). "Vedic Hinduism" (PDF). Harvard University. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2018. Retrieved 5 August 2022.: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
    See also Halbfass 1991, pp. 1–2
  129. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0
    .
  130. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7735-4070-5
    .
  131. ^ "In ancient Punjab, religion was fluid, not watertight, says Romila Thapar". The Indian Express. 3 May 2019. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Thapar said Buddhism was very popular in Punjab during the Mauryan and post-Mauryan period. Bookended between Gandhara in Taxila on the one side where Buddhism was practised on a large scale and Mathura on another side where Buddhism, Jainism and Puranic religions were practised, this religion flourished in the state. But after the Gupta period, Buddhism began to decline.
  132. ISBN 978-0-19-971354-7. Archived
    from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 23 November 2021. First, Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the sixteenth century, Muslims were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape. Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community, and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith (shahada), the performance of the circumsicion (indri vaddani), and the ingestion of cow-meat (bhas khana).
  133. ^ Chhabra, G. S. (1968). Advanced History of the Punjab: Guru and post-Guru period upto Ranjit Singh. New Academic Publishing Company. p. 37. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
  134. ISBN 978-0-19-971354-7. Archived
    from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 23 November 2021. While Punjabi Hindu society was relatively well established, there was also a small but vibrant Jain community in the Punjab. Buddhist communities, however, had largely disappeared by the turn of the tenth century.
  135. ISBN 978-1-5275-5748-2
    . With the Muslim conquest of Punjab there was a flow of Sufis and other preachers who came to spread Islam. Much of the advance of Islam was due to these preachers.
  136. ISBN 978-1-134-04946-2
    .
  137. ISBN 978-0-7735-4070-5
    .
  138. ^ Krishan, Gopal (2004). "Demography of the Punjab (1849–1947)" (PDF). Journal of Punjab Studies. 11 (1): 77–89. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2022.
  139. ^
    JSTOR saoa.crl.25057656
    . Retrieved 7 April 2024.
  140. ^
    JSTOR saoa.crl.25057657
    . Retrieved 7 April 2024.
  141. ^
    JSTOR saoa.crl.25057658
    . Retrieved 7 April 2024.
  142. ^
    JSTOR saoa.crl.25363739. Archived
    from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  143. ^
    JSTOR saoa.crl.25393788. Archived
    from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 3 March 2024.
  144. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kaul, Harikishan (1911). "Census Of India 1911 Punjab Vol XIV Part II". Retrieved 3 March 2024.
  145. ^
    JSTOR saoa.crl.25430165. Archived
    from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
  146. ^
    JSTOR saoa.crl.25793242. Archived
    from the original on 31 October 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
  147. ^
    JSTOR saoa.crl.28215541. Archived
    from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
  148. ^ a b "Gazetteers Of Gurdaspur District, 1883-84". 1884. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
  149. ^ a b "Punjab District Gazetteers Gurdaspur District Vol.21 Statistical Tables". 1913. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  150. ^ "Census Reference Tables, C-Series Population by religious communities". Census of India. 2001. Archived from the original on 1 July 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
  151. ^ "Sufi Saints of the Punjab". Punjabics.com. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
  152. ^ Kirpal Singh, Sant. "The Punjab – Home of Master Saints". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
  153. ^ a b c d "TABLE 9 - POPULATION BY SEX, RELIGION AND RURAL/URBAN" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  154. ^ a b c "Population by religion community – 2011". The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  155. ^ a b c d e f "Population by religion community – 2011". Census of India, 2011. The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  156. JSTOR saoa.crl.25430164. Archived
    from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
  157. JSTOR saoa.crl.25430165. Archived
    from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
  158. JSTOR saoa.crl.25793222. Archived
    from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  159. JSTOR saoa.crl.25793242. Archived
    from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  160. ^ a b Yadav, Kiran (11 February 2013). "Punjab – The Leader in Agricultural Sector, Agriculture Today, 2013". Agropedia. Archived from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
  161. ^ "Pakistani government statistics". infopak.gov.pk. Archived from the original on 8 March 2007. Retrieved 14 April 2007.
  162. ^ "Provincial Accounts of Pakistan: Methodology and Estimates 1973–2000" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
  163. JSTOR 4417268. Archived
    from the original on 29 September 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  164. ^ "Agriculture Department, Overview". agripunjab.gov.pk. 20 March 2014. Archived from the original on 23 June 2023.
  165. ^ "Punjab govt to identify poorest among unemployed in villages: Amarinder Singh". India Today. 7 October 2019. Archived from the original on 10 August 2022. Retrieved 7 October 2019.

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Punjab region.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Punjab".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Punjab&oldid=1219256722"