Puritans
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The Puritans were English
Puritans were dissatisfied with the limited extent of the
By the late 1630s, Puritans were in alliance with the growing commercial world, with the parliamentary opposition to the royal prerogative, and with the Scottish Presbyterians with whom they had much in common. Consequently, they became a major political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War (1642–1646).
Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the
Puritanism was never a formally defined religious division within Protestantism, and the term Puritan itself was rarely used after the turn of the 18th century. Some Puritan ideals, including the formal rejection of Roman Catholicism, were incorporated into the doctrines of the Church of England; others were absorbed into the many Protestant denominations that emerged in the late 17th and early 18th centuries in North America and Britain. The Congregational churches, widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition, are descended from the Puritans.[3][4] Moreover, Puritan beliefs are enshrined in the Savoy Declaration, the confession of faith held by the Congregationalist churches.[5]
Terminology
In the 17th century, the word Puritan was a term applied not to just one group but to many. Historians still debate a precise definition of Puritanism.[6] Originally, Puritan was a pejorative term characterizing certain Protestant groups as extremist. Thomas Fuller, in his Church History, dates the first use of the word to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that time used it and precisian with a sense similar to the modern stickler.[7] Puritans, then, were distinguished for being "more intensely protestant than their protestant neighbors or even the Church of England".[8] As a term of abuse, Puritan was not used by Puritans themselves. Those referred to as Puritan called themselves terms such as "the godly", "saints", "professors", or "God's children".[9]
"Non-separating Puritans" were dissatisfied with the Reformation of the Church of England but remained within it, advocating for further reform; they disagreed among themselves about how much further reformation was possible or even necessary. Others, who were later termed "Nonconformists", "Separatists", or "separating Puritans", thought the Church of England was so corrupt that true Christians should separate from it altogether. In its widest historical sense, the term Puritan includes both groups.[10][11]
Puritans should not be confused with other radical Protestant groups of the 16th and 17th centuries, such as Quakers, Seekers, and Familists, who believed that individuals could be directly guided by the Holy Spirit. They gave precedence to direct revelation over the Bible.[12]
In current English, puritan often means "against pleasure". In such usage, hedonism and puritanism are antonyms.[13] William Shakespeare described the vain, pompous killjoy Malvolio in Twelfth Night as "a kind of Puritan".[14] H. L. Mencken defined Puritanism as "the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy."[15] Puritans embraced sexuality but placed it in the context of marriage. Peter Gay writes that the Puritans' standard reputation for "dour prudery" was a "misreading that went unquestioned in the nineteenth century". He said they were in favour of married sexuality, and opposed the Catholic veneration of virginity (associated with the Virgin Mary), citing Edward Taylor and John Cotton.[16] One Puritan settlement in western Massachusetts banished a husband because he refused to fulfill his sexual duties to his wife.[17]
History
Puritanism had a historical importance over a period of a century, followed by fifty years of development in New England. It changed character and emphasis nearly decade by decade over that time.
Elizabethan Puritanism
The
Many English Protestants — especially those former Marian exiles returning to England to work as clergy and bishops — considered the settlement merely the first step in reforming England's church.[19] The years of exile during the Marian Restoration had exposed them to the practices of the Continental Reformed churches. The most impatient clergy began introducing reforms within their local parishes. The initial conflict between Puritans and the authorities included instances of nonconformity, such as omitting parts of the liturgy to allow more time for the sermon and singing of metrical psalms. Some Puritans refused to bow on hearing the name of Jesus, or to make the sign of the cross in baptism, or to use wedding rings or the organ.
Yet, the main complaint Puritans had was the requirement that clergy wear the white
In the 1570s, the primary dispute between Puritans and the authorities was over the appropriate form of church government. Many Puritans believed that the Church of England should follow the example of Reformed churches in other parts of Europe and adopt
Caroline Puritanism
Jacobean Puritanism
The accession of
Many of James's episcopal appointments were Calvinists, notably James Montague, who was an influential courtier. Puritans still opposed much of the Roman Catholic summation in the Church of England, notably the Book of Common Prayer, but also the use of non-secular vestments (cap and gown) during services, the sign of the Cross in baptism, and kneeling to receive Holy Communion.[24] Some of the bishops under both Elizabeth and James tried to suppress Puritanism, though other bishops were more tolerant. In many places, individual ministers were able to omit disliked portions of the revised Book of Common Prayer.[citation needed]
The Puritan movement of Jacobean times became distinctive by adaptation and compromise, with the emergence of "semi-separatism", "moderate puritanism", the writings of
Fragmentation and political failure
The Puritan movement in England was riven over decades by emigration and inconsistent interpretations of Scripture, as well as some political differences that surfaced at that time.
The
The
Great Ejection and Dissenters
At the time of the
The Dissenters divided themselves from all other Christians in the Church of England and established their own Separatist congregations in the 1660s and 1670s. An estimated 1,800 of the ejected clergy continued in some fashion as ministers of religion, according to
Puritans in North America
Some
Puritan hegemony lasted for at least a century. That century can be broken down into three parts: the generation of John Cotton and Richard Mather, 1630–62 from the founding to the Restoration, years of virtual independence and nearly autonomous development; the generation of Increase Mather, 1662–89 from the Restoration and the Halfway Covenant to the Glorious Revolution, years of struggle with the British crown; and the generation of Cotton Mather, 1689–1728 from the overthrow of Edmund Andros (in which Cotton Mather played a part) and the new charter, mediated by Increase Mather, to the death of Cotton Mather. [37] Puritan leaders were political thinkers and writers who considered the church government to be God's agency in social life.[38]
The Puritans in the Colonies wanted their children to be able to read and interpret the Bible themselves, rather than have to rely on the clergy for interpretation.[39][40][41][42] In 1635, they established the Boston Latin School to educate their sons, the first and oldest formal education institution in the English-speaking New World. They also set up what were called dame schools for their daughters, and in other cases taught their daughters at home how to read. As a result, Puritans were among the most literate societies in the world.
By the time of the American Revolution there were 40 newspapers in the United States (at a time when there were only two cities—New York and Philadelphia—with as many as 20,000 people in them).[42][43][44][45] The Puritans also set up a college (now Harvard University) only six years after arriving in Boston.[42][46]
Beliefs
Calvinism
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Puritanism broadly refers to a diverse religious reform movement in Britain committed to the
The concept of covenant was extremely important to Puritans, and covenant theology was central to their beliefs. With roots in the writings of Reformed theologians John Calvin and Heinrich Bullinger, covenant theology was further developed by Puritan theologians Dudley Fenner, William Perkins, John Preston, Richard Sibbes, William Ames and, most fully by Ames's Dutch student, Johannes Cocceius.[49] Covenant theology asserts that when God created Adam and Eve he promised them eternal life in return for perfect obedience; this promise was termed the covenant of works. After the fall of man, human nature was corrupted by original sin and unable to fulfill the covenant of works, since each person inevitably violated God's law as expressed in the Ten Commandments. As sinners, every person deserved damnation.[50]
Puritans shared with other Calvinists a belief in
Conversion
Covenant theology made individual salvation deeply personal. It held that God's predestination was not "impersonal and mechanical" but was a "covenant of grace" that one entered into by faith. Therefore, being a Christian could never be reduced to simple "intellectual acknowledgment" of the truth of Christianity. Puritans agreed "that the effectual call of each elect saint of God would always come as an individuated personal encounter with God's promises".[53]
The process by which the elect are brought from spiritual death to spiritual life (regeneration) was described as conversion.[52] Early on, Puritans did not consider a specific conversion experience normative or necessary, but many gained assurance of salvation from such experiences. Over time, however, Puritan theologians developed a framework for authentic religious experience based on their own experiences as well as those of their parishioners. Eventually, Puritans came to regard a specific conversion experience as an essential mark of one's election.[54]
The Puritan conversion experience was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases. It began with a preparatory phase designed to produce contrition for sin through introspection,
Confirming that such a conversion had actually happened often required prolonged and continual introspection. Historian
Too much emphasis on one's good works could be criticized for being too close to Arminianism, and too much emphasis on subjective religious experience could be criticized as Antinomianism. Many Puritans relied on both personal religious experience and self-examination to assess their spiritual condition.[57]
Puritanism's experiential piety would be inherited by the evangelical Protestants of the 18th century.[56] While evangelical views on conversion were heavily influenced by Puritan theology, the Puritans believed that assurance of one's salvation was "rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers", whereas evangelicals believed that assurance was normative for all the truly converted.[58]
Worship and sacraments
While most Puritans were members of the Church of England, they were critical of its worship practices. In the 17th century, Sunday worship in the established church took the form of the
The sermon was central to Puritan piety.[60] It was not only a means of religious education; Puritans believed it was the most common way that God prepared a sinner's heart for conversion.[61] On Sundays, Puritan ministers often shortened the liturgy to allow more time for preaching.[20] Puritan churchgoers attended two sermons on Sundays and as many weekday sermons and lectures they could find, often traveling for miles.[62] Puritans were distinct for their adherence to Sabbatarianism.[63]
Puritans taught that there were two
Puritans rejected both Roman Catholic (transubstantiation) and Lutheran (sacramental union) teachings that Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Lord's Supper. Instead, Puritans embraced the Reformed doctrine of real spiritual presence, believing that in the Lord's Supper the faithful receive Christ spiritually. In agreement with Thomas Cranmer, the Puritans stressed "that Christ comes down to us in the sacrament by His Word and Spirit, offering Himself as our spiritual food and drink".[67] They criticised the prayer book service for being too similar to the Catholic mass. For example, the requirement that people kneel to receive communion implied adoration of the Eucharist, a practice linked to transubstantiation. Puritans also criticised the Church of England for allowing unrepentant sinners to receive communion. Puritans wanted better spiritual preparation (such as clergy home visits and testing people on their knowledge of the catechism) for communion and better church discipline to ensure that the unworthy were kept from the sacrament.[66]
Puritans did not believe
Puritans eliminated choral music and musical instruments in their religious services because these were associated with Roman Catholicism; however, singing the Psalms was considered appropriate (see Exclusive psalmody).[70] Church organs were commonly damaged or destroyed in the Civil War period, such as when an axe was taken to the organ of Worcester Cathedral in 1642.[71]
Ecclesiology
While the Puritans were united in their goal of furthering the English Reformation, they were always divided over issues of ecclesiology and church polity, specifically questions relating to the manner of organizing congregations, how individual congregations should relate with one another and whether established national churches were scriptural.[54] On these questions, Puritans divided between supporters of episcopal polity, presbyterian polity and congregational polity.
The episcopalians (known as the prelatical party) were conservatives who supported retaining bishops if those leaders supported reform and agreed to share power with local churches.[72] They also supported the idea of having a Book of Common Prayer, but they were against demanding strict conformity or having too much ceremony. In addition, these Puritans called for a renewal of preaching, pastoral care and Christian discipline within the Church of England.[54]
Like the episcopalians, the presbyterians agreed that there should be a national church but one structured on the model of the
Most congregational Puritans remained within the Church of England, hoping to reform it according to their own views. The
Family life
Based on Biblical portrayals of Adam and Eve, Puritans believed that marriage was rooted in procreation, love, and, most importantly, salvation.[76] Husbands were the spiritual heads of the household, while women were to demonstrate religious piety and obedience under male authority.[77] Furthermore, marriage represented not only the relationship between husband and wife, but also the relationship between spouses and God. Puritan husbands commanded authority through family direction and prayer. The female relationship to her husband and to God was marked by submissiveness and humility.[78]
Thomas Gataker describes Puritan marriage as:
... together for a time as copartners in grace here, [that] they may reigne together forever as coheires in glory hereafter.[79]
The paradox created by female inferiority in the public sphere and the spiritual equality of men and women in marriage, then, gave way to the informal authority of women concerning matters of the home and childrearing.[80] With the consent of their husbands, wives made important decisions concerning the labour of their children, property, and the management of inns and taverns owned by their husbands.[81] Pious Puritan mothers laboured for their children's righteousness and salvation, connecting women directly to matters of religion and morality.[82] In her poem titled "In Reference to her Children", poet Anne Bradstreet reflects on her role as a mother:
I had eight birds hatched in one nest; Four cocks there were, and hens the rest. I nursed them up with pain and care, Nor cost nor labour I did spare.
Bradstreet alludes to the temporality of motherhood by comparing her children to a flock of birds on the precipice of leaving home. While Puritans praised the obedience of young children, they also believed that, by separating children from their mothers at adolescence, children could better sustain a superior relationship with God.[83] A child could only be redeemed through religious education and obedience. Girls carried the additional burden of Eve's corruption and were catechised separately from boys at adolescence. Boys' education prepared them for vocations and leadership roles, while girls were educated for domestic and religious purposes. The pinnacle of achievement for children in Puritan society, however, occurred with the conversion process.[82]
Puritans viewed the relationship between master and servant similarly to that of parent and child. Just as parents were expected to uphold Puritan religious values in the home, masters assumed the parental responsibility of housing and educating young servants. Older servants also dwelt with masters and were cared for in the event of illness or injury. African-American and Indian servants were likely excluded from such benefits.[84]
Demonology and witch hunts
Like most Christians in the early modern period, Puritans believed in the active existence of the devil and demons as evil forces that could possess and cause harm to men and women. There was also widespread belief in witchcraft and witches—persons in league with the devil. "Unexplained phenomena such as the death of livestock, human disease, and hideous fits suffered by young and old" may all be blamed on the agency of the devil or a witch.[85]
Puritan pastors undertook
In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of people throughout Europe were accused of being witches and executed. In England and Colonial America, Puritans engaged in
The Salem witch trials of 1692 had a lasting impact on the historical reputation of New England Puritans. Though this witch hunt occurred after Puritans lost political control of the Massachusetts colony, Puritans instigated the judicial proceedings against the accused and comprised the members of the court that convicted and sentenced the accused. By the time Governor William Phips ended the trials, fourteen women and five men had been hanged as witches.[91]
Millennialism
Puritan
In contrast to other Protestants who tended to view eschatology as an explanation for "God's remote plans for the world and man", Puritans understood it to describe "the cosmic environment in which the regenerate soldier of Christ was now to do battle against the power of sin".[95] On a personal level, eschatology was related to sanctification, assurance of salvation, and the conversion experience. On a larger level, eschatology was the lens through which events such as the English Civil War and the Thirty Years' War were interpreted. There was also an optimistic aspect to Puritan millennianism; Puritans anticipated a future worldwide religious revival before the Second Coming of Christ.[96][94] Another departure from other Protestants was the widespread belief among Puritans that the conversion of the Jews to Christianity was an important sign of the apocalypse.[97]
Cultural consequences
Some strong religious beliefs common to Puritans had direct impacts on culture. Puritans believed it was the government's responsibility to enforce moral standards and ensure true religious worship was established and maintained.[98] Education was essential to every person, male and female, so that they could read the Bible for themselves. However, the Puritans' emphasis on individual spiritual independence was not always compatible with the community cohesion that was also a strong ideal.[99] Anne Hutchinson (1591–1643), the well educated daughter of a teacher, argued with the established theological orthodoxy, and was forced to leave colonial New England with her followers.[100]
Education
At a time when the literacy rate in England was less than 30 per cent, the Puritan leaders of colonial New England believed children should be educated for both religious and civil reasons, and they worked to achieve universal literacy.[101] In 1642, Massachusetts required heads of households to teach their wives, children and servants basic reading and writing so that they could read the Bible and understand colonial laws. In 1647, the government required all towns with 50 or more households to hire a teacher and towns of 100 or more households to hire a grammar school instructor to prepare promising boys for college. Philemon Pormort's Boston Latin School was the only one in Boston, the first school of public instruction in Massachusetts".[102] Boys interested in the ministry were often sent to colleges such as Harvard (founded in 1636) or Yale (founded in 1707).[41] Aspiring lawyers or doctors apprenticed to a local practitioner, or in rare cases were sent to England or Scotland.[103]
Puritan scientists
The
Behavioral regulations
Puritans in both England and New England believed that the state should protect and promote true religion and that religion should influence politics and social life.
Attempting to force religious and intellectual homogeneity on the whole community, civil and religious restrictions were most strictly applied by the Puritans of Massachusetts which saw various banishments applied to enforce conformity, including the
Puritans were opposed to Sunday sport or recreation because these distracted from religious observance of the
While card playing by itself was generally considered acceptable, card playing and gambling were banned in England and the colonies, as was mixed dancing involving men and women—which Mather condemned as "promiscuous dancing"—because it was thought to lead to fornication.[107][120] Folk dance that did not involve close contact between men and women was considered appropriate.[121] The branle dance, which involved couples intertwining arms or holding hands, returned to popularity in England after the restoration when the bans imposed by the Puritans were lifted.[122] In New England, the first dancing school did not open until the end of the 17th century.[108]
Puritans condemned the sexualization of the theatre and its associations with depravity and prostitution—London's theatres were located on the south side of the Thames, which was a center of prostitution. A major Puritan attack on the theatre was William Prynne's book Histriomastix which marshals a multitude of ancient and medieval authorities against the "sin" of dramatic performance. Puritan authorities shut down English theatres in the 1640s and 1650s—Shakespeare's Globe Theatre was demolished—and none were allowed to open in Puritan-controlled colonies.[123][124] In January 1643, actors in London protested against the ban with a pamphlet titled The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses.[125] With the end of Puritan rule and the restoration of Charles II, theatre among other arts exploded, and London's oldest operating theatre, Drury Lane in the West End, opened in 1663.[126][127]
Puritans were not opposed to drinking alcohol in moderation.[128] However, alehouses were closely regulated by Puritan-controlled governments in both England and Colonial America.[108] Laws in Massachusetts in 1634 banned the "abominable" practice of individuals toasting each other's health.[129] William Prynne, the most rabid of the Puritan anti-toasters, wrote a book on the subject, Health's Sicknesse (1628), that "this drinking and quaffing of healthes had it origin and birth from Pagans, heathens, and infidels, yea, from the very Deuill himself."[129]
In 1649, English colonist William Pynchon, the founder of Springfield, Massachusetts, wrote a critique of Puritanical Calvinism, entitled The Meritorious Price of Our Redemption. Published in London in 1650, when the book reached Boston it was immediately burned on Boston Common and the colony pressed Pynchon to return to England which he did.[130] The censorious nature of the Puritans and the region they inhabited would lead to the phrase "banned in Boston" being coined in the late 19th century, a phrase which was applied to Boston up to the mid-20th century.[131]
Bounds were not set on enjoying sexuality within the bounds of marriage, as a gift from God.[132] Spouses were disciplined if they did not perform their sexual marital duties, in accordance with 1 Corinthians 7 and other biblical passages. Women and men were equally expected to fulfill marital responsibilities.[133] Women and men could file for divorce based on this issue alone. In Massachusetts colony, which had some of the most liberal colonial divorce laws, one out of every six divorce petitions was filed on the basis of male impotence.[134] Puritans publicly punished drunkenness and sexual relations outside marriage.[107] Couples who had sex during their engagement were fined and publicly humiliated.[107] Men, and a handful of women, who engaged in homosexual behavior, were seen as especially sinful, with some executed.[107] While the practice of execution was also infrequently used for rape and adultery, homosexuality was actually seen as a worse sin.[135] Passages from the Old Testament, including Lev 20:13., were thought to support the disgust for homosexuality and efforts to purge society of it. New Haven code stated "If any man lyeth with mankinde, as a man lyeth with a woman, both of them have committed abomination, they shall surely be put to death"[136] and in 1636 the Plymouth Colony adopted a set of laws that included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery.[137] Prominent authors such as Thomas Cobbert, Samual Danforth and Cotton Mather wrote pieces condemning homosexuality.[135] Mather argued that the passage "Overcome the Devil when he tempts you to the youthful sin of Uncleanness" was referring "probably to the young men of Sodom".[138]
Religious toleration
Puritan rule in England was marked by limited religious toleration. The Toleration Act of 1650 repealed the Act of Supremacy, Act of Uniformity, and all laws making recusancy a crime. There was no longer a legal requirement to attend the parish church on Sundays (for both Protestants and Catholics). In 1653, responsibility for recording births, marriages and deaths was transferred from the church to a civil registrar. The result was that church baptisms and marriages became private acts, not guarantees of legal rights, which provided greater equality to dissenters.[139]
The 1653 Instrument of Government guaranteed that in matters of religion "none shall be compelled by penalties or otherwise, but endeavours be used to win them by sound Doctrine and the Example of a good conversation". Religious freedom was given to "all who profess Faith in God by Jesus Christ".[140] However, Catholics and some others were excluded. No one was executed for their religion during the Protectorate.[140] In London, those attending Catholic mass or Anglican holy communion were occasionally arrested but released without charge. Many unofficial Protestant congregations, such as Baptist churches, were permitted to meet.[141] Quakers were allowed to publish freely and hold meetings. They were, however, arrested for disrupting parish church services and organising tithe-strikes against the state church.[142]
In New England, where Congregationalism was the official religion, the Puritans exhibited intolerance of other religious views, including
Four Quakers, known as the
Historiography
Puritanism has attracted much scholarly attention, and as a result, the secondary literature on the subject is vast. Puritanism is considered crucial to understanding the religious, political and cultural issues of early modern England. In addition, historians such as Perry Miller have regarded Puritan New England as fundamental to understanding American culture and identity. Puritanism has also been credited with the creation of modernity itself, from England's Scientific Revolution to the rise of democracy. In the early 20th century, Max Weber argued in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism that Calvinist self-denial resulted in a Protestant work ethic that nurtured the development of capitalism in Europe and North America. Puritan authors such as John Milton, John Bunyan, Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor continue to be read and studied as important figures within English and American literature.[149]
A debate continues on the definition of "Puritanism".[150] English historian Patrick Collinson argues that "There is little point in constructing elaborate statements defining what, in ontological terms, puritanism was and what it was not, when it was not a thing definable in itself but only one half of a stressful relationship."[151] Puritanism "was only the mirror image of anti-puritanism and to a considerable extent its invention: a stigma, with great power to distract and distort historical memory."[152] Historian John Spurr writes that Puritans were defined by their relationships with their surroundings, especially with the Church of England. Whenever the Church of England changed, Spurr argues, the definition of a Puritan also changed.[8]
The analysis of "mainstream Puritanism" in terms of the evolution from it of Separatist and
To the heightened Puritan imagination it seemed that, all over Europe, the lamps were going out: the Counter-Reformation was winning back property for the church as well as souls: and Charles I and his government, if not allied to the forces of the Counter-Reformation, at least appeared to have set themselves identical economic and political objectives.[153]
Notable Puritans
- John Brockett was a founder of New Haven, Connecticut.
- Peter Bulkley was an influential Puritan minister and founder of Concord.
- John Bunyan was famous for The Pilgrim's Progress.
- William Bradford was Plymouth Colony's Governor.
- Anne Bradstreet was the first female to have her works published in the British North American colonies.
- Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and eventually became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was a very religious man and was considered an independent Puritan.
- John Endecott was the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and an important military leader.
- evangelical preacher who sparked the First Great Awakening
- Thomas Hooker was a Puritan minister and co-founder of the Connecticut Colony.
- Anne Hutchinson was a Puritan woman noted for speaking freely about her religious views, which resulted in her banishment from Massachusetts Bay Colony.
- John Milton is regarded as among the greatest English poets; author of epics like Paradise Lost, and dramas like Samson Agonistes. He was a staunch supporter of Cromwell.
- James Noyes was an influential Puritan minister, teacher and founder of Newbury.
- Philip Nye (minister) was the key adviser to Oliver Cromwell on matters of religion and regulation of the Church.
- Thomas Parker was an influential Puritan minister, teacher and founder of Newbury.
- John Winthrop is noted for his sermon "A Model of Christian Charity" and as a leading figure in founding the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
- Robert Woodfordwas an English lawyer, largely based at Northampton and London. His diary for the period 1637–1641 records in detail the outlook of an educated Puritan.
See also
- Christianity in the 16th century
- Christianity in the 17th century
- Plymouth Rock
- Restorationism
- Work ethic
References
Notes
- ^ Spraggon 2003, p. 98.
- ^ Cliffe 2002, p. 195.
- ^ Miller 2008, p. 296: "Congregationalists were theologically descended directly from the Puritans of England and consequently enjoyed pride of place as one of the oldest, most numerous, and most significant religious groups in the colonies."
- ^ Morris, John W. (2011). The Historic Church: An Orthodox View of Christian History. Author House. p. 438.
- ^ Bremer & Webster 2006.
- ^ Spurr 1998, p. 3.
- ^ The A to Z of the Puritans. Scarecrow Press. 2008. p. 250.
- ^ a b Spurr 1998, p. 4.
- ^ Spurr 1998, p. 18.
- ISBN 978-1-4490-4578-4. Archived from the original on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 4 November 2012 – via Google Books.
- ^ Nuttall 1992, p. 9.
- ^ Spurr 1998, p. 7.
- ^ Mencken, H. L. (1916). A Book of Burlesques.
Puritanism: The haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy
- ^ Hagberg, Garry L. (2018). Stanley Cavell on Aesthetic Understanding. Springer. p. 125.
- ^ Fitzpatrick, Vincent (2004). H. L. Mencken. Mercer University Press. p. 37.
- ^ Gay 1984, p. 49.
- ^ Coffin 1987.
- ^ Coffey & Lim 2008, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Craig 2008, p. 36.
- ^ a b Craig 2008, p. 37.
- ^ Craig 2008, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Craig 2008, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Craig 2008, p. 42.
- ^ Neil, Daniel (1844). The History of the Puritans, Or Protestant Noncomformists: From the Reformation in 1517, to the Revolution in 1688; Comprising an Account of Their Principles; Their Attempts for a Farther Reformation in the Church; Their Sufferings; and the Lives and Characters of Their Most Considerable Divines. Vol. 1. p. 246. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016 – via Google Books.
- ^ Spurr 1998, Chapter 5.
- ^ Milton 1997.
- ^ Hill 1972.
- ^ Kelly 1992.
- ^ Benedetto & McKim 2010, pp. 521–522.
- ^ Lamont 1969.
- ^ a b Lee, Sidney, ed. (1897). . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 51. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 63–65.
- ^ Leighton 2004, p. 196.
- ^ Fischer 1989.
- ^ "The Puritans: A Sourcebook of Their Writings Archived 16 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine". Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson.
- ^ "Leaving England: The Social Background of Indentured Servants in the Seventeenth Century Archived 6 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
- ^ Bremer, Francis J. (1995). The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards.
- ^ Carpenter 2003, p. 41.
- JSTOR 2139228.
- ^ Axtell, James (1976). The School upon a Hill: Education and Society in Colonial New England.
- ISBN 0-684-81363-7.
- ^ a b Bremer 2009, pp. 81–82.
- ^ a b c Fischer 1989, pp. 132–134.
- ISBN 0-313-30982-5.
- ISBN 978-1-58648-334-0.
- ISBN 0-486-28294-5.
- ISBN 0-8203-1285-1.
- ^ Ahlstrom 2004, p. 125.
- ^ Bremer 2009, p. 35.
- ^ Ahlstrom 2004, pp. 130–131.
- ^ Bremer 2009, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Bremer 2009, p. 40.
- ^ a b c Bremer 2009, p. 42.
- ^ Ahlstrom 2004, p. 131.
- ^ a b c d Ahlstrom 2004, p. 132.
- ^ a b Bremer 2009, p. 43.
- ^ a b Ahlstrom 2004, p. 128.
- ^ a b Bremer 2009, p. 44.
- ^ Bebbington 1993, p. 43.
- ^ Spurr 1998, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Spurr 1998, p. 37.
- ^ a b Bremer 2009, p. 59.
- ^ Spurr 1998, p. 38.
- ^ Coffey & Lim 2008, p. 4.
- ^ Spurr 1998, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Beeke & Jones 2012, "Regeneration and Baptism", Amazon Kindle location 18043–18056.
- ^ a b Spurr 1998, p. 32.
- ^ Beeke & Jones 2012, "The True Meaning of the Lord's Supper", Amazon Kindle location 28097–28107.
- ^ White 1999, p. 49.
- ^ a b Spurr 1998, p. 33.
- ^ Bremer 2009, p. 65.
- ^ "Worcester Cathedral welcomes you to their Website". Worcestercathedral.co.uk. 20 February 2010. Archived from the original on 23 August 2010. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
- ^ a b c Bremer 2009, p. 69.
- ^ Bremer 2009, p. 72.
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{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help) - ^ "London's 10 oldest theatres". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
- ^ "From pandemics to puritans: when theatre shut down through history and how it recovered". The Stage.co.uk. Archived from the original on 31 December 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
- ^ West 2003, pp. 68ff.
- ^ a b "Cheers: Celebration Drinking Is an Ancient Tradition". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 12 March 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
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- ^ Lewis (1969, pp. 116–117): "On many questions and specially in view of the marriage bed, the Puritans were the indulgent party, ... they were much more Chestertonian than their adversaries [the Roman Catholics]. The idea that a Puritan was a repressed and repressive person would have astonished Sir Thomas More and Luther about equally."
- ^ Foster 1999, p. 724.
- ^ Foster 1999, pp. 726–727.
- ^ a b Crandell 1997, p. 20.
- ^ Crompton 1976, p. 281.
- ^ Chicago Whispers: A History of LGBT Chicago before Stonewall. University of Wisconsin Press. 2012. p. 248.
- ^ Mather 1663–1728, p. 70.
- ^ Coffey & Lim 2008, p. 80.
- ^ a b Coffey & Lim 2008, p. 81.
- ^ Coffey & Lim 2008, p. 83.
- ^ Coffey & Lim 2008, pp. 83–84: "But it was not for their heterodox theology or their own open meetings that they [the Quakers] were arrested and mistreated. It was for disrupting services in what they insisted on calling ‘steeple-houses’ rather than churches; that, or for organising tithe-strikes aimed directly and specifically to undermine the state church."
- ^ a b Rogers, Horatio, 2009. Mary Dyer of Rhode Island: The Quaker Martyr That Was Hanged on Boston Archived 15 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine pp. 1–2. BiblioBazaar, LLC
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- ^ Carroll, Rory (25 February 2016). "America's dark and not-very-distant history of hating Catholics". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016.
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- ^ Mahoney, Kathleen A. (10 September 2003). Catholic Higher Education in Protestant America: The Jesuits and Harvard in the Age of the University. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 47.
- ^ Coffey & Lim 2008, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Bremer 2009, p. 2.
- ^ Spurr (1998, p. 4) cites and quotes Collinson (1988, p. 143)
- ^ Spurr (1998, p. 27) cites and quotes Patrick Collinson, "Fundamental Objections", Times Literary Supplement (17–23 February 1989), p. 156.
- ^ Hill, Christopher (1971). Economic Problems of the Church. p. 337.
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Further reading
- Bremer, Francis J. Lay Empowerment and the Development of Puritanism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
- Eicholz, Hans (2008). "Puritanism". In OCLC 750831024.
- Giussani, Luigi. American Protestant Theology: A Historical Sketch. McGill-Queens UP (2013).
- Hall, David D. (2019). The Puritans: A Transatlantic History. Princeton University Press. H-Net online review.
- Neuman, Meredith Marie (2013). Jeremiah's Scribes: Creating Sermon Literature in Puritan New England. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Winship, Michael P. (2018). Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America. Yale University Press.
Puritan works
- Dent, Arthur (1601). The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven. Belfast, North of Ireland Bk. [and] Tract Depository.
- Rogers, Richard (1610). Seven Treatises.
- Scudder, Henry (1627). Christian's Daily Walk (PDF).
- Sibbes, Richard (1620). The Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax.