Pyramid of Unas
Pyramid of Unas | |
---|---|
cu)[6] (original) | |
Base | 57.75 m (189 ft; 110 cu)[6] |
Volume | 47,390 m3 (61,980 cu yd)[7] |
Slope | 56°18'35"[8] |
The pyramid of Unas (Egyptian: Nfr swt Wnjs "Beautiful are the places of Unas") is a smooth-sided pyramid built in the 24th century BC for the Egyptian pharaoh Unas, the ninth and final king of the Fifth Dynasty.[9][a] It is the smallest Old Kingdom pyramid, but significant due to the discovery of Pyramid Texts, spells for the king's afterlife incised into the walls of its subterranean chambers. Inscribed for the first time in Unas's pyramid, the tradition of funerary texts carried on in the pyramids of subsequent rulers, through to the end of the Old Kingdom, and into the Middle Kingdom through the Coffin Texts that form the basis of the Book of the Dead.
Unas built his pyramid between the complexes of
The causeway joined the temple in the harbour with the mortuary temple on the east face of the pyramid. The mortuary temple was entered on its east side through a large granite doorway, seemingly constructed by Unas's successor, Teti. Just south of the upper causeway are two long boat pits. These may have contained two wooden boats: the solar barques of Ra, the sun god. The temple was laid out in a similar manner to Djedkare Isesi's. A transverse corridor separates the outer from the inner temple. The entry chapel of the inner temple has been completely destroyed, though it once contained five statues in niches. A feature of the inner temple was a single quartzite column that was contained in the antichambre carrée. The room is otherwise ruined. Quartzite is an atypical material to use in architectural projects, though examples of it being used sparingly in the Old Kingdom exist. The material is associated with the sun cult due to its sun-like coloration.
The underground chambers remained unexplored until 1881, when
Location and excavation
The pyramid is situated on the Saqqara plateau and lies on a line running from the pyramid of Sekhemkhet to the pyramid of Menkauhor.[18] The site required the construction of an exceptionally long causeway to reach a nearby lake, suggesting the site held some significance to Unas.[19]
The pyramid was briefly examined by
Mortuary complex
Layout
Unas's complex is situated between the pyramid of Sekhemkhet and the south-west corner of the pyramid complex of Djoser. It is in symmetry with the pyramid of Userkaf situated at the north-east corner, in Saqqara.[25] Old Kingdom mortuary complexes consist of five essential components: (1) a valley temple; (2) a causeway; (3) a mortuary temple; (4) a cult pyramid; and (5) the main pyramid.[26] Unas's monument has all of these elements: the main pyramid, constructed six steps high from limestone blocks;[22] a valley temple situated in a natural harbour at the mouth of a wadi;[5] a causeway constructed using the same wadi as a path;[5] a mortuary temple similar in layout to that of Unas's predecessor, Djedkare Isesi's,[27] and a cult pyramid in the south of the mortuary temple.[28] The pyramid, mortuary temple and cult pyramid were enclosed by a 7 m (23 ft; 13 cu) tall perimeter wall.[29] The perimeter wall from the north-east to north-west corner is about 86 m (282 ft; 164 cu) long, and stretches 76 m (249 ft; 145 cu) from north to south.[30]
Main pyramid
Though Unas's reign lasted for around thirty to thirty-three years,[11] his pyramid was the smallest built in the Old Kingdom.[4] Time constraints cannot be considered a factor explaining the small size, and it is more likely that resource accessibility constrained the project.[22] The monument's size was also inhibited due to the extensive quarrying necessary to increase the size of the pyramid. Unas chose to avoid that additional burden and instead kept his pyramid small.[31]
The core of the pyramid was built six steps high, constructed with roughly dressed limestone blocks which decreased in size in each step.
Unas abandoned the practice of building pyramids for his consorts;[43] instead, Khenut and Nebet were buried in a double mastaba north-east of the main pyramid.[44] Each queen was accorded separate rooms and an individual entrance, though the layout of the tombs is identical. Khenut owned the western half, and Nebet owned the eastern half. Their chambers were extensively decorated.[45] The chapel for Nebet's mastaba contains four recesses. One bears a cartouche of Unas's name, indicating that it may have contained a statue of the king, whereas the others contained statues of the queen.[46] Directly north of the mastaba were the tombs for Unas's son Unasankh and daughter Iput. Another daughter, Hemetre, was buried in a tomb west of Djoser's complex.[47]
Substructure
A small chapel, called the "north chapel" or "entrance chapel",
The entrance into the substructure of the pyramid lay under the chapel's pavement.[27][36] The substructure of the pyramid is similar to that of Unas's predecessor, Djedkare Isesi.[27] The entry leads into a 14.35 m (47.1 ft) long vertically sloping corridor inclined at 22° that leads to a vestibule at its bottom.[49][22] The vestibule is 2.47 m (8.1 ft) long and 2.08 m (6.8 ft) wide.[49] From the vestibule, a 14.10 m (46.3 ft) long horizontal passage follows a level path to the antechamber and is guarded by three granite slab portcullises in succession.[22][36][49] The passage ends at an antechamber, a room measuring 3.75 m (12.3 ft) by 3.08 m (10.1 ft), located under the centre axis of the pyramid. To the east, a doorway leads to a room – called the serdab[50] – with three recesses.[36][b] The serdab measures 6.75 m (22.1 ft) wide and 2 m (6.6 ft) deep.[49] To the west lay the burial chamber, a room measuring 7.3 m (24 ft) by 3.08 m (10.1 ft), containing the ruler's sarcophagus.[27][53] The roof of both the antechamber and burial chamber were gabled, in a similar fashion to earlier pyramids of the era.[27]
Near the burial chamber's west wall sat Unas's coffin, made from greywacke rather than basalt as was originally presumed.[27][58] The coffin was undamaged, but its contents had been robbed.[59] A canopic chest had once been buried at the foot of the south-east corner of the coffin.[27] Traces of the burial are fragmentary; all that remain are portions of a mummy, including its right arm, skull and shinbone, as well as the wooden handles of two knives used during the opening of the mouth ceremony.[27] The mummy remains have been displayed in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo.[36]
The walls of the chambers were lined with Tura limestone,[60] while those surrounding Unas's sarcophagus[36][61] were sheathed in white alabaster incised and painted to represent the doors of the royal palace facade, complementing the eastern passage.[27][62] Taken as symbolically functional, these allowed the king to depart the tomb in any direction.[63] The ceiling of the burial chamber was painted blue with gold stars to resemble the night sky.[36] The ceiling of the antechamber and corridor were similarly painted. Whereas the stars in the antechamber and the burial chamber pointed northward, the stars in the corridor pointed towards the zenith.[27] The remaining walls of the burial chamber, antechamber, and parts of the corridor were inscribed with a series of vertically written texts, chiselled in bas-relief and painted blue.[27][36]
Pyramid Texts of Unas
The inscriptions, known as the Pyramid Texts, were the central innovation of Unas's pyramid,
Ancient Egyptian belief held that the individual consisted of three basic parts; the
The writings on the west gable in Unas's burial chamber consist of spells that protect the sarcophagus and mummy within.[83][84] The north and south walls of the chamber are dedicated to the offering and resurrection rituals respectively,[54][73] and the east wall contains texts asserting the king's control over his sustenance in the form of a response to the offering ritual.[85][86] The offering ritual texts continue onto the north and south walls of the passageway[87] splitting the resurrection ritual which concludes on the south wall.[85][88] In the rituals of the burial chamber,[66] the king is identified both as himself and as the god Osiris,[89] being addressed as "Osiris Unas".[12] The king is also identified with other deities, occasionally several, alongside Osiris in other texts.[90] The Egyptologist James Allen identifies the last piece of ritual text on the west gable of the antechamber:[85]
Your son Horus has acted for you.
The great ones will shake, having seen the knife in your arm as you emerge from the Duat.
Greetings, experienced one! Geb has created you, the Ennead has given you birth.
Horus has become content about his father, Atum has become content about his years, the eastern and western gods have become content about the great thing that has happened in his embrace – the god's birth.
It is Unis: Unis, see! It is Unis: Unis, look! It is Unis: hear! It is Unis: Unis, exist! It is Unis: Unis, raise yourself from your side!
Do my command, you who hate sleep but were made slack. Stand up, you in Nedit. Your good bread has been made in Pe; receive your control of Heliopolis.
It is Horus (who speaks), having been commanded to act for his father.
The storm-lord, the one with spittle in his vicinity, Seth – he will bear you: he is the one who will bear Atum.[91]
The antechamber and corridor were inscribed primarily with personal texts.[66] The west, north and south walls of the antechamber contain texts whose primary concern is the transition from the human realm to the next, and with the king's ascent to the sky.[92] The east wall held a second set of protective spells, starting with the "Cannibal Hymn".[93] In the hymn, Unas consumes the gods to absorb their power for his resurrection.[94][95] The Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson identifies the hymn as a mythologizing of the "butchery ritual" in which a bull is sacrificed.[95] The serdab remained uninscribed.[96] The southern section of the walls of the corridor contain texts[97][d] that focus primarily on the resurrection and ascension of the deceased.[99] The mere presence of the spells[e] within the tomb were believed to have efficacy,[101] thus protecting the king even if the funerary cult ceased to function.[102][103][f]
Parts of the corpus of Pyramid Texts were passed down into the Coffin Texts,[81] an expanded set of new texts written on non-royal tombs of the Middle Kingdom, some retaining Old Kingdom grammatical conventions and with many formulations of the Pyramid Texts recurring.[65][105][106] The transition to the Coffin Texts was begun in the reign of Pepi I and completed by the Middle Kingdom. The Coffin Texts formed the basis for the Book of the Dead in the New Kingdom and Late Period.[81] The texts would resurface in tombs and on papyri for two millennia, finally disappearing around the time that Christianity was adopted.[107]
Valley temple
Unas's valley temple is situated in a harbour that naturally forms at the point where the mouth of a wadi meets the lake. The same wadi was used as a path for the causeway.
The main entrance into the temple was on the east side, consisting of a portico with eight granite palm columns arranged into two rows. A narrow westward corridor led from the entry into a rectangular north–south oriented hall. A second hall was to the south. Two secondary entrances into the halls were built on the north and south sides. Each had a portico with two columns. These were approached by narrow ramps. West of the two halls was the main cult hall. It had a second chamber with three storerooms to the south and a passageway leading to the causeway to the north-west.[23]
Causeway
The causeway connecting the valley temple to the mortuary temple of Unas's pyramid complex was constructed along the path provided by a natural wadi.
Tombs in the path of the causeway were built over, preserving their decorations, but not their contents, indicating that the tombs had been robbed either before or during the causeway's construction.
The interior walls of the causeway were highly decorated with painted bas-reliefs, but records of these are fragmentary.[5] The remnants depict a variety of scenes including the hunting of wild animals, the conducting of harvests, scenes from the markets, craftsmen working copper and gold, a fleet returning from Byblos, boats transporting columns from Aswan to the construction site, battles with enemies and nomadic tribes, the transport of prisoners, lines of people bearing offerings, and a procession of representatives from the nomes of Egypt.[5][29][116] A slit was left in a section of the causeway roofing, allowing light to enter illuminating the brightly painted decorations on the walls.[5] The archaeologist Peter Clayton notes that these depictions were more akin to those found in the mastabas of nobles.[20]
The Egyptologist
A collection of tombs were found north of the causeway.[120] The tomb of Akhethetep, a vizier, was discovered by a team led by Christiane Ziegler.[121] The other mastabas belong to the viziers Ihy, Iy–nofert, Ny-ankh-ba and Mehu.[122][123] The tombs are conjectured to belong to Unas's viziers, with the exception of Mehu's tomb, which is associated with Pepi I.[122] Another tomb, belonging to Unas-ankh, son of Unas, separates the tombs of Ihy and Iy-nofert.[124][125] It may be dated late into Unas's reign.[124]
Ahmed Moussa discovered the rock-cut tombs of Nefer and Ka-hay – court singers during Menkauhor's reign[126] – south of Unas's causeway, containing nine burials along with an extremely well preserved mummy found in a coffin in a shaft under the east wall of the chapel.[127] The Chief Inspector at Saqqara, Mounir Basta, discovered another rock-cut tomb just south of the causeway in 1964, later excavated by Ahmed Moussa. The tombs belonged to two palace officials – manicurists[128] – living during the reigns of Nyuserre Ini and Menkauhor, in the Fifth Dynasty, named Ni-ankh-khnum and Khnum-hotep. A highly decorated chapel for the tomb was discovered the following year. The chapel was located inside a unique stone mastaba that was connected to the tombs through an undecorated open court.[127]
Mortuary temple
The mortuary temple in Unas's pyramid complex has a layout comparable to his predecessor, Djedkare Isesi's, with one notable exception. A pink granite doorway separates the end of the causeway from the entrance hall. It bears the names and titles of
North and south of the entrance hall and columned courtyard were storerooms.[130] These were stocked regularly with offering items for the royal funerary cult, which had expanded influence[h] in the Fifth Dynasty.[136] Their irregular placement resulted in the northern storerooms being twice as numerous as the southern. The rooms were used for burials in the Late Period, as noted by the presence of large shaft tombs.[130] At the far end of the courtyard was a transverse corridor creating an intersection between the columned courtyard at its east and inner temple to its west, with a cult pyramid to the south, and a larger courtyard surrounding the pyramid to the north.[28]
The inner temple is accessed by a small staircase leading into a ruined chapel with five statue niches.
Cult pyramid
The purpose of the cult pyramid remains unclear. It had a burial chamber but was not used for burials, and instead appears to have been a purely symbolic structure.[144] It may have hosted the pharaoh's ka,[145] or a miniature statue of the king.[48] It may have been used for ritual performances centring around the burial and resurrection of the ka spirit during the Sed festival.[48]
The cult pyramid in Unas's complex has identifiable remains, but has otherwise been destroyed.[146] The preserved elements suggest that it had a base length of 11.5 m (38 ft; 22 cu), a fifth of that of the main pyramid. The pyramid's covering slabs were inclined at 69°. This was typical for cult pyramids which had a 2:1 ratio-ed slope, and thus a height equal to the length of the base, i.e. 11.5 m (38 ft; 22 cu). A small channel was dug in front of the pyramid entrance, perhaps to prevent run-off from entering the pyramid.[147] The first slabs of the descending corridor are declined at 30.5°. The pit measures 5.15 m (17 ft; 10 cu) north-south and 8.15 m (27 ft; 16 cu) east-west. The burial chamber was cut 2.03 m (7 ft; 4 cu) deep into the rock, sits 2.12 m (7 ft; 4 cu) beneath the pavement and measures 5 m (16 ft; 10 cu) by 2.5 m (8 ft; 5 cu).[148]
The "great enclosure"[i] of the main pyramid and inner temple has an identifiable anomaly. Four m (13 ft; 8 cu) from the cult pyramid's west face the wall abruptly turns to the north before receding for 12 m (39 ft; 23 cu) toward the main pyramid. It stops 2.6 m (8.5 ft; 5.0 cu) from the main pyramid and turns once more back onto its original alignment.[149] The only explanation for this is the presence of the Second Dynasty Hotepsekhemwy's large tomb which spans the width of the whole temple and crosses directly under the recess. The architects of the pyramid appear to have preferred for the enclosure wall to run over the tomb's passageway, rather than over the top of the subterranean gallery. The cult pyramid has its own secondary enclosure that runs along the north face of the pyramid and half of its west face. This secondary wall was about 1.04 m (3 ft; 2 cu) thick, and had a double-door 0.8 m (2.6 ft) thick built close to its start.[150]
Later history
Evidence suggests that Unas's funerary cult survived through the First Intermediate Period and into the Middle Kingdom,[151] an indication that Unas retained prestige long after his death.[152] Two independent pieces of evidence corroborate the existence of the cult in the Middle Kingdom: 1) A stela dated to the Twelfth Dynasty bearing the name Unasemsaf[j] and 2) A statue of a Memphite official, Sermaat,[k] from the Twelfth or Thirteenth Dynasty, with an inscription invoking Unas's name.[154] The Egyptologist Jaromír Málek contends that the evidence only suggests a theoretical revival of the cult, a result of the valley temple serving as a useful entry path into the Saqqara necropolis, but not its persistence from the Old Kingdom.[155] Despite renewed interest in the Old Kingdom rulers at the time, their funerary complexes, including Unas's, were partially reused in the construction of Amenemhat I's and Senusret I's pyramid complexes at El-Lisht.[156] One block used in Amenemhat's complex has been positively identified as originating from Unas's complex, likely taken from the causeway, on the basis of inscriptions containing his name appearing upon it.[157] Several other blocks have their origins speculatively assigned to Unas's complex as well.[158]
The Saqqara plateau witnessed a new era of tomb building in the New Kingdom. Starting with the reign of Thutmose III in the Eighteenth Dynasty and up until possibly the Twentieth Dynasty, Saqqara was used as a site for the tombs of private individuals.[159] The largest concentrations of tombs from the period are found in a large area south of Unas's causeway.[160] This area came to prominent use around the time of Tutankhamun.[161] Unas's pyramid underwent restorative work in the New Kingdom. In the Nineteenth Dynasty,[20] Khaemweset, High Priest of Memphis and son of Ramesses II, had an inscription carved onto a block on the pyramid's south side commemorating his restoration work.[5][27]
Late Period monuments, colloquially called the "Persian tombs", thought to date to the reign of Amasis II, were discovered near the causeway. These include tombs built for Tjannehebu, Overseer of the Royal Navy; Psamtik, the Chief Physician; and Peteniese, Overseer of Confidential Documents. The Egyptologist John D. Ray explains that the site was chosen because it was readily accessible from both Memphis and the Nile Valley.[162] Traces of Phoenician and Aramaic burials have been reported in the area directly south of Unas's causeway.[163]
See also
- List of Egyptian pyramids
- List of megalithic sites
Notes
- ^ Proposed dates for Unas's reign: c. 2404–2374 BC,[10][11] c. 2375–2345 BC,[12][13] c. 2356–2323 BC,[14] c. 2353–2323 BC,[15] c. 2312–2282 BC,[16] c. 2378/48–2348/18 ± 1–3 years BC.[17]
- ^ The function of the serdab is unclear.[51] Joachim Spiegel considered the room to represent the day sky.[52] Nicolas Grimal postulates that these held statues of the deceased.[53] Mark Lehner adds that the niches could have been used for storing provisions of the cult; a symbolic transfer of offerings presented at the offering hall's false door into the subterranean chambers.[54] Leclant disputes the royal statue hypothesis, proffering instead their use as storage compartments for funerary materials.[55] Bernard Mathieu posits that the serdab represents the "Demeure d'Osiris" (residence of Osiris), where the ruler has to descend below the horizon before resuming their ascent to the northern sky.[56] James Allen notes that it may relate to the tripartite "Tomb of Horus", featured in the Amduat, containing Horus's dismembered body after he is slain by Seth. The three recesses thus contained the "human head, falcon wings, and feline rear" of Horus.[52][57]
- Nyuserre.[69]
- ^ In Unas's pyramid, only the south sections of the horizontal passage was inscribed.[98][36] Teti's pyramid received the same treatment, though the pyramids of Merenre and Pepi II had writings throughout the entire horizontal passage and the vestibule with the three granite portcullises, and Pepi I's pyramid also had writings on a section of the ascending corridor as well.[98]
- ^ The symbols were strongly believed to have powerful magic imbued within; so much so that hieroglyphic symbols representing dangerous animals, such as a snake or lion, were intentionally damaged after being inscribed in order to prevent them from corporealising and threatening the well being of the king in his chambers.[100]
- ^ A motivator for the regular performance of the cult was the temporary nature of oration. By inscribing the texts, the rites gained permanence.[104] Even as an akh, the deceased required the attention of the living who sustained them through rituals and offerings.[74]
- El-Mo'alla, attesting to the famines are numerous, but somewhat questionable. Climatic change bringing drier seasons appears to have started during the Old Kingdom, and archaeological observations at Elephantine suggests that flooding seasons were better, not worse, during the First Intermediate Period. Crises were socially significant during the period, and gave a basis for the legitimacy of rulers' power. Rulers positioned themselves as caring for the whole of their society, including the weak and unfortunate, ensuring their right to authority and respect.[117]
- ^ By the Fifth Dynasty, the religious institution had established itself as the dominant force in society;[131][132] a trend of growth in the bureaucracy and the priesthood, and a decline in the pharaoh's power had been established during Neferirkare Kakai's reign and only intensified during Unas's.[133] The prioritization of cult activities received its expression in the expansive storeroom complexes[134] that became a feature of pyramid temples beginning with Sahure's reign,[116] and the space they occupied increased in a linear fashion from Neferirkare Kakai's reign onwards.[135]
- ^ translated from the French: "la grande enceinte"[147]
- ^ transl. Wnỉs-m-zʒ.f[153]
- ^ transl. Sr-mʒꜥt[153]
References
- ^ Jiménez-Serrano 2012, p. 155.
- ^ Edel 2013, p. 74.
- ^ Budge 1920, p. 167a.
- ^ a b c d e f Verner 2001d, p. 332.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Lehner 2008, p. 155.
- ^ a b c d e Arnold 2003, p. 250.
- ^ a b Bárta 2005, p. 180.
- ^ Lehner 2008, p. 10.
- ^ Altenmüller 2001, pp. 597 & 600.
- ^ Verner 2001b, p. 590.
- ^ a b Altenmüller 2001, p. 600.
- ^ a b c d e f Málek 2003, p. 102.
- ^ Shaw 2003, p. 482.
- ^ Lehner 2008, p. 8.
- ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. xx.
- ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 288.
- ^ Verner 2001a, p. 411.
- ^ Lehner 2008, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Lehner 2008, p. 83.
- ^ a b c d e Clayton 1994, p. 63.
- ^ Verner 2001d, pp. 332–333.
- ^ a b c d e f Verner 2001d, p. 333.
- ^ a b c Hawass 2015, Chapter 10.
- ^ Chauvet 2001, p. 177.
- ^ Lehner 2008, pp. 10, 83 & 154.
- ^ Bárta 2005, p. 178.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Verner 2001d, p. 334.
- ^ a b Verner 2001d, pp. 335–337.
- ^ a b c d e f Verner 2001d, p. 337.
- ^ Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977, p. 58.
- ^ a b Dodson 2016, p. 29.
- ^ Lehner 2008, p. 206.
- ^ Lucas 1959, p. 66.
- ^ Verner 2001d, pp. 333–334.
- ^ Lehner 2008, p. 207.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Lehner 2008, p. 154.
- ^ Lehner 2008, p. 155 image.
- ^ Gros de Beler 2000, p. 119.
- ^ Bard 2015, General statement about pyramids on p. 145.
- ^ Edwards 1993, p. 157.
- ^ Verner 1994, p. 92.
- ^ Dodson 2016, p. 30.
- ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 68.
- ^ Dodson 2016, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Verner 2001d, p. 339.
- ^ Dodson 2016, p. 31.
- ^ a b c d Arnold 2005, p. 70.
- ^ a b c d Stadelmann 1985, p. 185.
- ^ Allen 2005, p. 10.
- ^ Allen 2005, pp. 11 & 14, note. 17.
- ^ a b Billing 2018, p. 78.
- ^ a b Grimal 1992, p. 125.
- ^ a b c d Lehner 2008, p. 33.
- ^ Mathieu 1997, pp. 294 & 301.
- ^ Mathieu 1997, p. 292.
- ^ Allen 2005, pp. 11 & 14, note 17..
- ^ Nicholson & Shaw 2006, p. 57.
- ^ Edwards 1993, pp. 175–176.
- ^ Edwards 1993, p. 175.
- ^ Verner 1994, p. 54.
- ^ Hays 2009, pp. 215–216.
- ^ Hays 2009, p. 216.
- ^ a b c Verner 1994, p. 57.
- ^ a b c Allen 2001, p. 95.
- ^ a b c d Allen 2005, p. 15.
- ^ Allen 2005, p. 4.
- ^ Hays 2012, pp. 86–89.
- ^ Smith 2009, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Verner 2001c, p. 92.
- ^ Hays 2012, pp. 5–6.
- ^ a b c d Allen 2005, p. 7.
- ^ a b Allen 2001, p. 96.
- ^ a b c d Janák 2013, p. 3.
- ^ Hays 2009, p. 195.
- ^ Hays 2009, pp. 209–212.
- ^ Hays 2012, pp. 212–213.
- ^ a b Lehner 2008, p. 24.
- ^ Janák 2013, p. 2.
- ^ Allen 2005, pp. 7–8.
- ^ a b c Grimal 1992, p. 126.
- ^ Hays 2012, p. 10.
- ^ Allen 2005, p. 11.
- ^ Hays 2012, pp. 107–108.
- ^ a b c Allen 2005, p. 16.
- ^ Hays 2012, p. 289.
- ^ Hays 2012, p. 82.
- ^ Hays 2012, pp. 93, 640 & 649.
- ^ Allen 2005, pp. 11 & 15.
- ^ Smith 2017, p. 139.
- ^ Allen 2005, pp. 16 & 41.
- ^ Hays 2012, pp. 106–109 & 282.
- ^ Allen 2005, pp. 11 & 16.
- ^ Eyre 2002, p. 134.
- ^ a b Wilkinson 2016, Part 3 "Hymns", 1 "The Cannibal Hymn", p. 1.
- ^ Lehner 2008, p. 158.
- ^ Hays 2012, pp. 108–109.
- ^ a b Allen 2005, p. 12.
- ^ Hellum 2012, p. 42.
- ^ Verner 2001d, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Málek 2003, p. 103.
- ^ Lehner 2008, p. 145.
- ^ Allen 2001, p. 600.
- ^ Hays 2012, pp. 257–258.
- ^ Lesko 2001, p. 574.
- ^ Verner 2001d, p. 44.
- ^ Hays 2012, p. 1.
- ^ Wilkinson 2000, p. 128.
- ^ Edwards 1993, p. 173.
- ^ Hellum 2007, p. 105.
- ^ Verner 2001d, pp. 337–338.
- ^ Grimal 1992, p. 124.
- ^ Altenmüller 2002, p. 271.
- ^ a b Wilkinson 2005, p. 207.
- ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 157.
- ^ a b Grimal 1992, p. 123.
- ^ Seidlmayer 2003, pp. 118–120.
- ^ Grimal 1992, p. 123 & 137–139.
- ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 360.
- ^ Strudwick 1985, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 136.
- ^ a b Strudwick 1985, p. 56.
- ^ Manuelian 1999, p. 598.
- ^ a b Strudwick 1985, p. 57.
- ^ Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 69.
- ^ Strudwick 1985, pp. 13 & 205.
- ^ a b Allen et al. 1999, p. 162.
- ^ Strudwick 1985, p. 205.
- ^ Verner 2001d, pp. 334–335.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Verner 2001d, p. 335.
- ^ Wegner 2001, p. 333.
- ^ Grimal 1992, pp. 89–90.
- ^ Verner 2001b, pp. 589–590.
- ^ Bárta 2005, p. 186.
- ^ Bárta 2005, pp. 184, fig 4., & 186.
- ^ Bárta 2005, pp. 186 & 188.
- ^ Verner 2001d, p. 336.
- ^ a b Megahed 2016, p. 248.
- ^ Ossian 2001, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Nicholson & Shaw 2006, p. 54.
- ^ Lucas 1959, p. 79.
- ^ Ossian 2001, p. 105.
- ^ Ćwiek 2003, p. 270.
- ^ Verner 2001d, p. 53.
- ^ Lehner 2008, p. 18.
- ^ Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977, p. 54.
- ^ a b Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977, p. 55.
- ^ Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Labrousse, Lauer & Leclant 1977, p. 56.
- ^ Morales 2006, p. 314.
- ^ Allen et al. 1999, p. 9.
- ^ a b Málek 2000, p. 251.
- ^ Málek 2000, p. 251 & 607.
- ^ Málek 2000, p. 256.
- ^ Málek 2000, pp. 256–257.
- ^ Goedicke 1971, pp. 24–26.
- ^ Goedicke 1971, pp. 59–74, 78, 86–94, 97–100.
- ^ Schneider 1999, pp. 847–848.
- ^ Schneider 1999, p. 849.
- ^ Schneider 1999, p. 852.
- ^ Ray 1999, p. 845.
- ^ Ray 1999, p. 846.
Sources
- ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
- Allen, James (2005). Der Manuelian, Peter (ed.). The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Writings from the Ancient World, Number 23. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-182-7.
- Allen, James; Allen, Susan; Anderson, Julie; et al. (1999). Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. OCLC 41431623.
- ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
- Altenmüller, Hartwig (2002). "Funerary Boats and Boat Pits of the Old Kingdom" (PDF). In Coppens, Filip (ed.). Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2001. Vol. 70. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute. pp. 269–290. )
- Arnold, Dieter (2003). The Encyclopaedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-465-8.
- Arnold, Dieter (2005). "Royal cult complexes of the Old and Middle Kingdoms". In Schafer, Byron E. (ed.). Temples of Ancient Egypt. London & New York: I.B. Taurus. pp. 31–86. ISBN 978-1-85043-945-5.
- Bard, Kathryn (2015). An introduction to the archaeology of ancient Egypt. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-470-67336-2.
- Bárta, Miroslav (2005). "Location of the Old Kingdom Pyramids in Egypt". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 15 (2): 177–191. S2CID 161629772.
- Billing, Nils (2018). The Performative Structure: Ritualizing the Pyramid of Pepy I. Leiden & Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-37237-5.
- OCLC 697736910.
- Chauvet, Violaine (2001). "Saqqara". In ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
- ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3.
- Ćwiek, Andrzej (2003). Relief Decoration in the Royal Funerary Complexes of the Old Kingdom: Studies in the Development, Scene Content and Iconography (PhD). Supervised by OCLC 315589023.
- ISBN 978-0-500-05128-3.
- Dodson, Aidan (2016). The Royal Tombs of Ancient Egypt. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Archaeology. ISBN 978-1-47382-159-0.
- Edel, Elmar (2013) [1980]. Hieroglyphische Inschriften des Alten Reiches (in German). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmBH. ISBN 978-3-531-05081-2.
- OCLC 473229011.
- Eyre, Christopher (2002). The Cannibal Hymn: A Cultural and Literary Study. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-0-85323-706-8.
- Goedicke, Hans (1971). Re-used blocks from the Pyramid of Amenemhat I at Lisht. Vol. 20. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Egyptian Expedition. ISBN 978-0-87099-107-3.
- ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8.
- Gros de Beler, Aude (2000). The Nile. Paris: Molière Editions. ISBN 978-2907670333.
- ISBN 978-88-98301-33-1.
- Hays, Harold M. (2009). "Unreading the pyramids". Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. 109: 195–220. ISSN 0255-0962.
- Hays, Harold M. (2012). The Organization of the Pyramid Texts: Typology and Disposition (Volume 1). Probleme de Ägyptologie. Vol. Band 31. Leiden & Boston: Brill. ISSN 0169-9601.
- Hellum, Jennifer (2007). The Pyramids. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32580-9.
- Hellum, Jennifer (2012). "The use of myth in the Pyramid Texts". In Knoblauch, Christian M.; Gill, James C. (eds.). Egyptology in Australia and New Zealand 2009: Proceedings of the Conference Held in Melbourne, September 4th–6th. Oxford: Archaeopress. pp. 41–46. ISBN 978-1-4073-0941-5.
- Janák, Jiří (2013). Wendrick, Willeke; Dieleman, Jacco; Frood, Elizabeth; Baines, John (eds.). Akh. Los Angeles: University of California. )
- Jiménez-Serrano, Alejandro (2012). )
- Labrousse, Audran; Lauer, Jean-Philippe; Leclant, Jean (1977). Le temple haut du complexe funéraire du roi Ounas (in French). Le Caire: Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire. OCLC 249491871.
- ISBN 978-0-500-28547-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
- Lucas, Alfred (1959) [1948]. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries (Third Edition, Revised ed.). London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) LTD. OCLC 1057992706.
- Málek, Jaromír (2000). "Old Kingdom rulers as "local saints" in the Memphite area during the Old Kingdom". In Bárta, Miroslav; Krejčí, Jaromír (eds.). Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2000. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic – Oriental Institute. pp. 241–258. ISBN 978-80-85425-39-0.
- Málek, Jaromír (2003). "The Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2160 BC)". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 83–107. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3.
- Manuelian, Peter Der (1999). "Memphite private tombs of the Old Kingdom". In Bard, Kathryn (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 594–598. ISBN 978-0-203-98283-9.
- ISBN 978-2842690472.
- Megahed, Mohamed (2016). "The antichambre carée in the Old Kingdom. Decoration and function". In Landgráfová, Renata; Mynářová, Jana (eds.). Rich and great: studies in honour of Anthony J. Spalinger on the occasion of his 70th Feast of Thoth. Prague: Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Arts. pp. 239–259. ISBN 978-8073086688.
- Morales, Antonio J. (2006). "Traces of official and popular veneration to Nyuserra Iny at Abusir. Late Fifth Dynasty to the Middle Kingdom". In Bárta, Miroslav; Coppens, Filip; Krejčí, Jaromír (eds.). Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2005, Proceedings of the Conference held in Prague (June 27–July 5, 2005). Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Oriental Institute. pp. 311–341. ISBN 978-80-7308-116-4.
- Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian, eds. (2006). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45257-1.
- Ossian, Clair R. (2001). "Quartzite". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 104–105. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
- ISBN 978-0-203-98283-9.
- Schneider, Hans D. (1999). "Saqqara, New Kingdom private tombs". In Bard, Kathryn (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 847–854. ISBN 978-0-203-98283-9.
- Seidlmayer, Stephan (2003). "The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160–2055 BC)". In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 108–136. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3.
- Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815034-3.
- Smith, Mark (2009). Wendrick, Willeke; Dieleman, Jacco; Frood, Elizabeth; Baines, John (eds.). Democratization of the Afterlife. Los Angeles: University of California. )
- Smith, Mark (2017). Following Osiris: Perspectives on the Osirian Afterlife from Four Millennia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-108976-3.
- Stadelmann, Rainier (1985). Die ägyptischen Pyramiden: Von Ziegelbau zum Weltwunder. Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt (in German). Vol. 30. Mainz am Rhein: Phillip von Zabern. OCLC 961317530.
- Strudwick, Nigel (1985). Davies, W. V. (ed.). The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders. London: KPI Limited. ISBN 978-0-7103-0107-9.
- ISBN 978-80-200-0022-4. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2011-02-01.
- Verner, Miroslav (2001a). "Archaeological Remarks on the 4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology" (PDF). Archiv Orientální. 69 (3): 363–418. ISSN 0044-8699.
- Verner, Miroslav (2001b). "Old Kingdom". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 585–591. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
- Verner, Miroslav (2001c). "Pyramid". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 87–95. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
- Verner, Miroslav (2001d). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-1703-8.
- Wegner, Josef W. (2001). "Royal cults". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 332–336. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
- ISBN 978-0-500-05100-9.
- ISBN 978-0-415-18633-9.
- Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (2016). Writings from Ancient Egypt. London: Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0141395951.
External links
- Pyramid Texts Online – Read the texts in situ. View the hieroglyphs and the complete translation.
- Virtual exploration of the pyramid of Unas