Helios
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Helios figures prominently in several works of Greek mythology, poetry, and literature, in which he is often described as the son of the Titans Hyperion and Theia and brother of the goddesses Selene (the Moon) and Eos (the Dawn). Helios' most notable role in Greek mythology is the story of his mortal son Phaethon who asked his father for a favour; Helios agreed, but then Phaethon asked for the privilege to drive his four-horse fiery chariot across the skies for a single day. Although Helios warned his son again and again against this choice, explaining to him the dangers of such a journey that no other god but him was capable to bring about, Phaethon was hard to deter, and thus Helios was forced to hand him the reins. As expected, the ride was disastrous and Zeus struck the youth with one of his lightning bolts to stop him from burning or freezing the earth beyond salvation. Other than this myth, Helios occasionally appears in myths of other characters, witnessing oaths or interacting with other gods and mortals.[3]
In the
Due to his position as the sun, he was believed to be an all-seeing witness, and thus was often invoked in oaths. He also played a significant part in ancient magic and spells. In art he is usually depicted as a beardless youth in a chiton holding a whip and driving his quadriga, accompanied by various other celestial gods such as Selene, Eos, or the stars. In ancient times he was worshipped in several places of ancient Greece, though his major cult centers were the island of Rhodes, of which he was patron god, Corinth and the greater Corinthia region. The Colossus of Rhodes, a gigantic statue of the god, adorned the port of Rhodes until it was destroyed in an earthquake, thereupon it was not built again.
Name
The Greek noun ἥλιος (
The author of the Suda lexicon tried to etymologically connect ἥλιος to the word ἀολλίζεσθαι, aollízesthai, "coming together" during the daytime, or perhaps from ἀλεαίνειν, aleaínein, "warming".[10] Plato in his dialogue Cratylus suggested several etymologies for the word, proposing among others a connection, via the Doric form of the word halios, to the words ἁλίζειν, halízein, meaning collecting men when he rises, or from the phrase ἀεὶ εἱλεῖν, aeí heileín, "ever turning" because he always turns the earth in his course:
Socrates: What, then, do you wish first? Shall we discuss the sun (Ἥλιος), as you mentioned it first?
Hermogenes: By all means.
Socrates: I think it would be clearer if we were to use the Doric form of the name. The Dorians call it Ἅλιος. Now ἅλιος might be derived from collecting (ἁλίζειν) men when he rises, or because he always turns (ἀεὶ εἱλεῖν) about the earth in his course, or because he variegates the products of the earth, for variegate is identical with αἰολλεῖν.
Doric Greek retained Proto-Greek long *ā as α, while Attic changed it in most cases, including in this word, to η. Cratylus and the etymologies Plato gives are contradicted by modern scholarship.[12] From helios comes the modern English prefix helio-, meaning "pertaining to the Sun", used in compounds word such as heliocentrism, aphelion, heliotropium, heliophobia (fear of the sun) and heliolatry ("sun-worship").[13]
Origins
Helios most likely is Proto-Indo-European in origin. Walter Burkert wrote that "... Helios, the sun god, and Eos-Aurora, the goddess of the dawn, are of impeccable Indo-European lineage both in etymology and in their status as gods" and might have played a role in Proto-Indo-European poetry.[14] The imagery surrounding a chariot-driving solar deity is likely Indo-European in origin.[15][16][17] Greek solar imagery begins with the gods Helios and Eos, who are brother and sister, and who become in the day-and-night-cycle the day (hemera) and the evening (hespera), as Eos accompanies Helios in his journey across the skies. At night, he pastures his steeds and travels east in a golden boat. In them evident is the Indo-European grouping of a sun god and his sister, and the equine pair.[18]
The name
Although the
It has been suggested that the
Helios' journey on a chariot during the day and travel with a boat in the ocean at night is likely a reflection of the Egyptian sun god Ra sailing across the skies in a barque and through the body of the sky goddess Nut to be reborn at dawn each morning anew; both gods were known as the (all-seeing in Helios's case) Eye of the Heaven in their respective pantheons.[28]
Description
Helios is the son of Hyperion and Theia,[29][30][31] or Euryphaessa,[32] or Aethra,[33] or Basileia,[34] the only brother of the goddesses Eos and Selene. If the order of mention of the three siblings is meant to be taken as their birth order, then out of the four authors that give him and his sisters a birth order, two make him the oldest child, one the middle, and the other the youngest.[b] Helios was not among the regular and more prominent deities, rather he was a more shadowy member of the Olympian circle,[35] though in spite of him being a relatively marginal god, he was one of the most ancient ones, and one that the other gods did not want to meddle with.[36] From his lineage, Helios might thus be described as a second generation Titan, but the ancient Greeks were fairly vague on the matter.[37] Homer in the Odyssey calls him Helios Hyperion (literally "the Sun up above"), with Hyperion used in a patronymic sense to Helios. In the Odyssey, Theogony and the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Helios is once in each work called Ὑπεριονίδης (Hyperionídēs, "the son of Hyperion") and this example is followed by many later poets (like Pindar[38]), who distinguish between Helios and Hyperion; in later literature the two gods are distinctly father and son. In literature, it is not uncommon for authors to use "Hyperion's bright son" instead of his proper name when referring to the Sun.[39] He is associated with harmony and order, both in the sense of society and the literal movement of the celestial bodies; in this regard, he resembles Apollo, a god he was very often identified with.[40]
Helios is usually depicted as a handsome young man crowned with the shining
A god is then summoned. He is described as "a youth, fair to behold, with fiery hair, clothed in a white tunic and a scarlet cloak and wearing a fiery crown." He is named as "Helios, lord of heaven and earth, god of gods."[52]
As mentioned above, the imagery surrounding a chariot-driving solar deity is likely
Helios is seen as both a personification of the Sun and the fundamental creative power behind it[55] and as a result is often worshiped as a god of life and creation. Homer described Helios as a god "who gives joy to mortals"[56] and other ancient texts give him the epithet "gracious" (ἱλαρός), given that he is the source of life and regeneration and associated with the creation of the world. The comic playwright Aristophanes in Nephelae describes Helios[57] as "the horse-guider, who fills the plain of the earth with exceeding bright beams, a mighty deity among gods and mortals."[58] One passage recorded in the Greek Magical Papyri says of Helios, "the earth flourished when you shone forth and made the plants fruitful when you laughed and brought to life the living creatures when you permitted."[15] He is said to have helped create animals out of primeval mud.[59]
Mythology
God of the Sun
Rising and Setting
Helios was envisioned as a god driving his chariot from east to west each day, pulled by four white horses. In the ancient world people were not too troubled over how his chariot flew through the sky, as they did not envision the Earth as a spherical object, so Helios would not be travelling around a globe in an orbit; rather he crossed the sky from east to west each morning in a linear direction.
As he rides in his chariot, he shines upon men and deathless gods, and piercingly he gazes with his eyes from his golden helmet. Bright rays beam dazzlingly from him, and his bright locks streaming from the temples of his head gracefully enclose his far-seen face: a rich, fine-spun garment glows upon his body and flutters in the wind: and stallions carry him. Then, when he has stayed his golden-yoked chariot and horses, he rests there upon the highest point of heaven, until he marvelously drives them down again through heaven to Ocean.
—Homeric Hymn 31 to the Sun[49]
In Homer, he is said to go under the earth at sunset, but it is not clear whether that means he travels through
) describes the sunset as such:"There [is] the sacred wave, and the coralled bed of the
Erythræan Sea, and [there] the luxuriant marsh of the Ethiopians, situated near the ocean, glitters like polished brass; where daily in the soft and tepid stream, the all-seeing Sun bathes his undying self, and refreshes his weary steeds."
In the extreme east and west lived people who tended to his horses in their stalls, people for whom summer and heat were perpetual and ripeful.[45] The sun god is described as being "tireless in his journeys" as he repeats the same process day after day for an eternity.[45] Palladas sarcastically wrote that "The Sun to men is the god of light, but if he too were insolent to them in his shining, they would not desire even light."[75]
Disrupted schedule
On several instances in mythology the normal solar schedule is disrupted; he was ordered not to rise for three days during the conception of
When Zeus desired to sleep with
While Heracles was travelling to Erytheia to retrieve the cattle of Geryon for his tenth labour, he crossed the Libyan desert and was so frustrated at the heat that he shot an arrow at Helios, the Sun. Almost immediately, Heracles realized his mistake and apologized profusely (Pherecydes wrote that Heracles stretched his arrow at him menacingly, but Helios ordered him to stop, and Heracles in fear desisted[72]); In turn and equally courteous, Helios granted Heracles the golden cup which he used to sail across the sea every night, from the west to the east because he found Heracles' actions immensely bold. In the versions delivered by Apollodorus and Pherecydes, Heracles was only about to shoot Helios, but according to Panyassis, he did shoot and wounded the god.[88]
Heracles used this golden cup to reach Erytheia, and after he had taken Geryon's cattle, returned it back to its owner.
When the brothers Thyestes and Atreus fought over which would get to rule Mycenae,[93] following the death of the previous king, Eurystheus, Atreus suggested that whoever possessed of a splendid golden ram would be declared king. Unbeknownst to Atreus, his unfaithful wife Aerope had given Thyestes the ram, and thus Thyestes became king. Zeus sent Hermes to Atreus, telling Atreus to get Thyestes to agree that should the Sun rise in the west and set in the east, the kingship would be given to Atreus.[94] Thyestes agreed, and Helios indeed rose where he usually set, and set where he usually rose, not standing the unfairness of Thyestes' actions.[95] The Mycenaeans then bowed to the man who had accomplished such an achievement and reversed the course of the Sun.[96] According to Plato, Helios at first used to rise in the west and set in the east, and only changed that after the incident of the golden ram, as did the other celestial bodies which followed suit.[97]
Solar eclipses
Solar eclipses were phaenomena of fear as well as wonder in Ancient Greece, and were seen as the Sun abandoning humanity.[98] According to a fragment of Archilochus, it is Zeus who blocks Helios and makes him disappear from the sky; "Zeus the Olympian veiled the light to make it night at midday even as sun was shining: so dread fear has overtaken men" he writes[99] and in one of his paeans, the lyric poet Pindar describes a solar eclipse as the Sun's light being hidden from the world, a bad omen of destruction and doom:[100]
Beam of the sun! What have you contrived, observant one, mother of eyes, highest star, in concealing yourself in broad daylight? Why have you made helpless men's strength and the path of wisdom, by rushing down a dark highway? Do you drive a stranger course than before? In the name of Zeus, swift driver of horses, I beg you, turn the universal omen, lady, into some painless prosperity for Thebes ... Do you bring a sign of some war or wasting of crops or a mass of snow beyond telling or ruinous strife or emptying of the sea on land or frost on the earth or a rainy summer flowing with raging water, or will you flood the land and create a new race of men from the beginning?
Plutarch in his Moralia writes that it is "through love of the sun that the moon herself makes her circuit, and has her meetings with him to receive from him all fertility".[102] Aristophanes describes a solar eclipse in his play Nephelae that was observed in Athens in 425 BC.[103]
Horses of Helios
- According to Eumelus of Corinth – late 7th/ early 6th century BC: The male trace horses are Eous (by him the sky is turned) and Aethiops (as if flaming, parches the grain) and the female yoke-bearers are Bronte ("Thunder") and Sterope ("Lightning").
- According to Ovid — Roman, 1st century BC Phaethon's ride: Pyrois ("the fiery one"), Eous ("he of the dawn"), Aethon ("blazing"), and Phlegon ("burning").[105][106]
Hyginus writes that according to Homer, the horses' names are Abraxas and Therbeeo; but Homer makes no mention of horses or chariot.[105]
Awarding of Rhodes
According to Pindar,
Once Athena was born from Zeus' head, Helios enjoined his children and the rest of the Rhodians to immediately build an altar for the goddess quickly, in order to win her favour (and apparently he disclosed the same to the Atticans too[109]); they did as he told them, however they forgot to bring fire with them to properly do the sacrifice. Zeus, however, sent a golden cloud and rained gold on them, and Athena still graced them with unmatched skill in every art.[113] For this reason, Athena was worshipped in Rhodes with flameless sacrifices; the victim would be slain on the altar of burn offering, but the fire was not set on the altar.[114]
Phaethon
The most well known story about Helios is the one involving his son Phaethon, who asked him to drive his chariot for a single day. Although all versions agree that Phaethon convinced Helios to give him his chariot, and that he failed in his task with disastrous results, there is a great number of details that vary by version, including the identity of Phaethon's mother, the location the story takes place, the role Phaethon's sisters the Heliades play, the motivation behind Phaethon's decision to ask his father for such thing, and even the exact relation between god and mortal.
Traditionally Phaethon was Helios' son by the Oceanid nymph Clymene,[115] or alternatively Rhode[116] or the otherwise unknown Prote.[117] In one version of the story, Phaethon is Helios' grandson, rather than son, through the boy's father Clymenus. In this version, Phaethon's mother is an Oceanid nymph named Merope.[118]
In Euripides' lost play
Take, for instance, that passage in which Helios, in handing the reins to his son, says—
"Drive on, but shun the burning Libyan tract;
The hot dry air will let thine axle down:
Toward the seven Pleiades keep thy steadfast way."
And then—
"This said, his son undaunted snatched the reins,
Then smote the winged coursers' sides: they bound
Forth on the void and cavernous vault of air.
His father mounts another steed, and rides
With warning voice guiding his son. 'Drive there!
Turn, turn thy car this way."
If this messenger did witness the flight himself, it is possible there was also a passage where he described Helios taking control over the bolting horses in the same manner as Lucretius described.[124] Phaethon inevitably dies; a fragment near the end of the play has Clymene order the slave girls hide Phaethon's still-smouldering body from Merops, and laments Helios' role in her son's death, saying he destroyed him and her both.[125] Near the end of the play it seems that Merops, having found out about Clymene's affair and Phaethon's true parentage, tries to kill her; her eventual fate is unclear, but it has been suggested she is saved by some deus ex machina.[126] A number of deities have been proposed for the identity of this possible deus ex machina, with Helios among them.[126]
In Ovid's account, Zeus' son Epaphus mocks Phaethon's claim that he is the son of the sun god; his mother Clymene tells Phaethon to go to Helios himself, to ask for confirmation of his paternity, and the boy travels east to meet his father. Helios, living in a palace far away and attended by several other gods, warmly receives his son, and promises him on the river Styx any gift that he might ask as a proof of paternity; Phaethon asks for the privilege to drive Helios' chariot for a single day, causing his father to immediately regret his gift. Although Helios warns his son of how dangerous and disastrous this would be, and keeps begging Phaethon to rethink his wish, he is nevertheless unable to change Phaethon's mind or revoke his promise. Phaethon takes the reins in his father's horror, and drives the chariot with catastrophic results; the earth burns when he travels too low, and freezes when he takes the chariot too high. Zeus, in order to save the world, strikes Phaethon with a lightning, killing him. Helios, in his sorrow and deprived of all light out of grief, refuses to resume his job, but he returns to his task and duty at the appeal of the other gods, as well as Zeus' threats. He then takes his anger out on his four horses, whipping them in fury for causing his son's death.[127]
Hyginus wrote that Phaethon secretly mounted his father's car without said father's knowledge and leave, but with the aid of his sisters the Heliades who yoked the horses, implying the existence of an early version, where Phaethon and his (full) sisters are legitimate offspring of the sun god and his wife, brought up in their father's house, rather than product(s) of an extramarital liaison.[129]
At any point, Helios recovered the reins in time, thus saving the earth and keeping it from burning to a cinder due to the flames from the chariot.[130] Another consistent detail across versions are that Phaethon's sisters the Heliades mourn him by the Eridanus and are turned into black poplar trees, who shed tears of amber. According to Quintus Smyrnaeus, it was Helios who turned them into trees, for their honour to Phaethon.[131] The part concerning the Heliades might have been a mythical device to account for the origin of amber; it is probably of no coincidence that the Greek word for amber, elektron (ἤλεκτρον), resembles elektor (ἠλέκτωρ), an epithet of Helios.[132] The poplar tree was considered sacred to Helios, due to the sun-like brilliance its shining leaves have.[133] A sacred poplar in an epigram written by Antipater of Thessalonica warns the reader not to harm her because Helios cares for her.[134] In one version of the myth, Helios conveyed his dead son to the stars, as a constellation (the Auriga).[135]
The aftermath of this episode was satirized by Lucian; in one of his dialogues, Zeus angrily berates Helios for lenting his chariot to his inexperienced son, who burned the earth with it as Helios makes excuses for himself and his child; Zeus returns the damaged chariot to its owner and threatens Helios to zap him with one of his lightning bolts should he ever do such thing again.[136]
Relating to this is a fable from Aesop, in which Helios announces his intention to get married, causing the frogs to protest intensively. When Zeus, disturbed by all that noise, asks them to explain their stance, they reply that the Sun already burns their ponds on his own just fine; if he gets married and begets even more sons, it will sure doom them.[137]
The Watchman
Persephone
But, Goddess, give up for good your great lamentation.
You must not nurse in vain insatiable anger.
Among the gods Aidoneus is not an unsuitable bridegroom,
Commander-of-Many and Zeus's own brother of the same stock.
As for honor, he got his third at the world's first division
and dwells with those whose rule has fallen to his lot.
Helios saw and stood witness to everything that happened underneath him where his light shone. When Hades abducted Persephone, Helios, who was characterized with the epithet Helios Panoptes ("the all-seeing Sun"), was the only one to witness it, while Hecate only heard Persephone's screams as she was snatched away. Persephone's mother Demeter, looked far and wide in search of her daughter, and at the suggestion of Hecate, came to him, and asked him to respect her as a goddess and tell her if he had seen anything. Helios, sympathizing with her grief, told her in detail that it was Hades who, with Zeus' permission, had taken an unwilling and screaming Persephone to the Underworld to be his wife and queen,[139] and that Zeus had not only permitted the marriage but also consented to the abduction.[140]
In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter he asks Demeter to sooth her pain, as Hades is not an unworthy son-in-law or bridegroom[d] for her, being her own brother and king of the Underworld besides, living with those he was chosen by lot to rule over, before he yokes his winged horses and chariot and ascends in the sky as the day breaks. In Ovid's Fasti, Demeter asks the stars first about Persephone's whereabouts, and it is Helice (the constellation Ursa Major) who advises her to go ask Helios, for the night knew nothing of those events. Demeter is not slow to approach him, and Helios then tells her not to waste time, and seek out for "the queen of the third world", the bride of Zeus's brother.[142]
Helios and Hecate informing Demeter of Persephone's abduction seems to be based on a common theme found in many parts of the world where the Sun and the Moon are questioned concerning events that happen below based on their perceived ability to bear witness to everything that take place on earth, and is one of the earliest examples of Hecate's connection to the moon and Helios.[143][144]
Ares and Aphrodite
In another myth, Aphrodite was married to Hephaestus, but she cheated on him with his brother Ares, god of war. In Book Eight of the Odyssey, the blind singer Demodocus describes how the illicit lovers committed adultery, until one day Helios caught them in the act, and immediately informed Aphrodite's husband Hephaestus. Upon learning that, Hephaestus forged a net so thin it could hardly be seen, in order to ensnare them. He then announced that he was leaving for Lemnos. Upon hearing that, Ares went to Aphrodite and the two lovers coupled.[145] Once again Helios informed Hephaestus, who came into the room and trapped them in the net. He then called the other gods to witness the humiliating sight.[146]
Much later versions add a young man to the story, a warrior named
Leucothoe and Clytie
For Helios' tale-telling, Aphrodite would have her revenge on him. She made him fall for a mortal princess named
However, Clytie, still in love with him, informed Leucothoe's father
Clytie's herb has been identified with the
Other
In Sophocles' play Ajax, Ajax the Great, minutes before committing suicide, calls upon Helios to stop his golden reins when he reaches Ajax' native land of Salamis and inform his aging father Telamon and his mother of their son's fate and death, and salutes him one last time before he kills himself.[161]
Involvement in wars
Helios sided with the other gods in several battles; during what appears to have been the Titanomachy,[e] Zeus sacrificed a bull to him, Gaia, and Uranus, and in accordance they revealed to him the will of the gods in the affair, the omens indicating the victory of the gods and a defection to them of the enemy.[162] Surviving fragments from the lost poem Titanomachy, traditionally attributed to Eumelus of Corinth (8th century BC), imply scenes where Helios is the only one among the Titans to have abstained from attacking the Olympian gods,[163] and they, after the war was over, in recognition of the help he offered, gave him a place in the sky and awarded him with a chariot, drawn by two male and two female horses, to drive during the day and a vessel in which he would sail the ocean at night.[164][165]
He also took part in the Giant wars; it was said by
At some point during the battle of gods and giants in Phlegra, where the battle took place,[170] Helios took up an exhausted from the fight Hephaestus on his chariot (in gratitude, Hephaestus forged four ever-flowing fountains and fire-breathing bulls for Helios' son Aeëtes).[171] After the war was won and over, one of the giants, Picolous, fled the battle against Zeus; he went to Aeaea, the island where Helios' daughter, the sorceress Circe, lived. He attempted to chase Circe away from the island, only to be killed by Helios, who defended his daughter.[172][173][174] From the blood of the slain giant that dripped on the earth a new plant was sprang, the herb moly, named thus from the battle ("malos" in Ancient Greek):[175]
The plant "moly" of which Homer speaks; this plant had, it is said, grown from the blood of the giant killed in the isle of Circe; it has a white flower; the ally of Circe who killed the giant was Helios; the combat was hard (mâlos) from which the name of this plant.[176][177]
The flower had a black root, for the colour of the blood of the slain Giant, and a white flower, either for the white Sun that killed him, or for the fact that Circe grew pale of terror.[178] This is the very same plant, a plant only immortals can uproot from the ground, that Odysseus would later use on Hermes' suggestion to save his companions from Circe's magic, after she transformed them all into swines.[179] Helios is depicted in the Pergamon Altar, waging war against Giants next to his sisters Eos and Selene and his mother Theia in the southern frieze.[180][181] He is riding his four-horse chariot against a Giant, while another lays dead under the hooves of his steeds, wearing a long chiton, holding a torch on his right hand and the reins in his left.[182] His participation in the Gigantomachy (wearing a cuirass) is also depicted on a fragmentary vase by the Pronomos Painter, and perhaps in an attic column krater.[165] Additionally, a rein guide for a chariot depicts Helios and a goddess with a crescent and veil over her head, thought to be Selene, standing on a gate tower and repelling the attacks of snake-legged Giants.[183]
Clashes and punishments
Gods
Despite that, he sometimes clashed with other gods; just like the Athenians had a story about how Athena and Poseidon fought over the patronage of the city of Athens, the Corinthians had a similar story about Corinth. Helios and Poseidon, representing fire versus water, clashed as to who would get to have the city. The Hecatoncheir Briareos, an elder god, was tasked to settle the dispute between the two gods; he awarded the Acrocorinth to Helios, while Poseidon was given the isthmus of Corinth.[184][185]
In an Aesop fable, Helios and the north wind god Boreas argued about which one between them was the strongest god. They agreed that whoever was able to make a passing traveller remove his cloak would be declared the winner. Boreas was the one to try his luck first; but no matter how hard he blew, he could not remove the man's cloak, instead making him wrap his cloak around him even tighter. Helios shone bright then, and the traveller, overcome with the heat, removed his cloak, giving him the victory. The moral is that persuasion is better than force.[188] Athenaeus of Naucratis records in his Deipnosophistae that Greek author Hieronymus of Rhodes, in his Historical Notes, quoted an anecdote about playwrights Sophocles and Euripides that referenced the fable of the two gods' contest; it related how Sophocles made love to a boy outside the city's gates who then proceeded to steal Sophocles' cloak, and leave behind his own boyish one. Euripides then joked that he had had that same boy too, and it had not cost him anything. Sophocles then replied to him that "It was the Sun, and not a boy, whose heat stripped me naked; as for you, Euripides, when you were kissing someone else's wife the North Wind screwed you. You are unwise, you who sow in another's field, to accuse Eros of being a snatch-thief."[189]
Mortals
Relating to his nature as the Sun, as well as his parentage, as the son of Theia, the goddess of sight (ancient Greeks believed that eyes emitted light allowing humans to see),[190] Helios was presented as a god who could restore and also deprive of people's light as it was regarded that his light that made the faculty of sight and enabled visible things to be seen.[191] According to Pindar, the solar eye was the "forefather" of all mortal eyes, and mortals owed both sight and blindness to Helios.[192] After Orion was blinded by King Oenopion for attacking his daughter Merope, he was given a guide, Cedalion, from the god Hephaestus to guide him. Orion with Cedalion on his shoulders travelled to the east, where he met Helios. Helios then healed Orion's eyes, restoring his eyesight.[193] Meanwhile, in Phineus's story, his blinding, as reported in Apollonius Rhodius's Argonautica, was Zeus' punishment for Phineus revealing the future to mankind.[194] For this reason he was also tormented by the Harpies, who stole or defiled whatever food he had at hand. According, however, to one of the alternative versions, it was Helios who had deprived Phineus of his sight; Phineus, when asked by Zeus if he preferred to die or lose sight as punishment for having his sons killed by their stepmother, Phineus chose the latter, saying he would rather never see the Sun than die, and consequently the offended Helios blinded him and sent the Harpies against him.[195] Pseudo-Oppian wrote that Helios' wrath was due to some obscure victory of the prophet; after Calais and Zetes slew the Harpies tormenting Phineus, Helios then turned him into a mole, a blind creature.[196] In yet another version, he blinded Phineus at the request of his son Aeëtes, who asked him to do so because Phineus had offered his assistance to Aeëtes' enemies.[197]
In another tale, in order to escape from Crete and its king Minos, the Athenian inventor Daedalus and his young son Icarus fashioned themselves wings made of birds' feathers glued together with wax and flew away.[198] According to scholia on Euripides, Icarus, being young and rashful, thought himself greater than Helios, forgetting his wings were only held together by wax. Angered, Helios hurled his blazing rays at him, melting the wax and plunging Icarus into the sea to drown. Later, it was Helios who decreed that said sea would be named after the unfortunate youth, the Icarian Sea.[199][200]
Arge was a huntress who, while hunting down a particularly fast stag, claimed that fast as the Sun as it was, she would eventually catch up to it. Helios, offended by the girl's words, changed her shape into that of a doe.[201][202]
In one rare version of Smyrna's tale, it was an angry Helios who cursed her to fall in love with her own father Cinyras because of some unspecified offence the girl committed against him; in the vast majority of other versions however, the culprit behind Smyrna's curse is the goddess of love Aphrodite.[203]
Oxen of the Sun
In his sacred island of
Odyssey
During Odysseus' journey to get back home, he arrived at the island of Circe, who warned him not to touch Helios' sacred cows once he reached Thrinacia, the sun god's sacred island, where the cattle was kept, or the god would keep them from returning home:
You will now come to the
Thrinacian island, and here you will see many herds of cattle and flocks of sheep belonging to the sun-god. There will be seven herds of cattle and seven flocks of sheep, with fifty heads in each flock. They do not breed, nor do they become fewer in number, and they are tended by the goddesses Phaethusa and Lampetia, who are children of the sun-god Hyperion by Neaera. Their mother when she had borne them and had done suckling them sent them to the Thrinacian island, which was a long way off, to live there and look after their father's flocks and herds. If you leave these flocks unharmed, and think of nothing but homecoming [nostos], you may yet after much hardship reach Ithaca; but if you harm them, then I forewarn you of the destruction both of your ship and of your comrades; and even though you may yourself escape, you will return late, in bad plight, after losing all your men.[214]
Though Odysseus warns his men, when supplies run short they impiously kill and eat some of the
This episode is symbolic; the cattle of the Sun are attended to by his daughters "Bright" and "Shining", born to him by "Younger", all epithets related to the Sun.[218] By convention, Hades is the place where Helios with his light cannot reach; dying meant no longer seeing the sunlight, as being alive was to live under it, so Helios' descent to the Underworld would destabilize the balance between the dead and the living.[219] Relating to the number of cows found on the Sun's island, Eustathius wrote that each cow stood for a day in the year, thus the companions devouring the oxen of the Sun symbolizing them wasting ("eating up") their own days and life.[220] H. J. Rose disagreed with the interpretation, writing that 350 is a sacred Oriental number that reached Greece and had nothing to do with the Sun.[221] Aristotle, who also connected the number of cattle to the number to days, suggested that the reason Helios did not see the companions stealing his cattle could be explained a number of ways, such as he sees everything but not at once, or that Lampetia being the messenger is symbolic for light being messenger of sight, or that her account is similar to oath-swearing on his name.[222]
Although the proem of the Odyssey names Helios as the primary agent of retribution for the sacrilege, having "taken away the day of return" of the comrades, his role is actually limited; he resorts to threaten Zeus, and it is he who destroys the ship and the men (although in other myths, Helios is perfectly capable of exacting revenge on his own, without a middleman); by all means, Zeus should be considered the one responsible, and the attribution of their demise solely to Helios even seems biased.[223] However it could be due to that Zeus is not the one acting out of personal animosity (Helios is), rather he is asked and inclined to serve justice.[223]
Other works
Helios is featured in several of Lucian's works beyond his Dialogues of the Gods. In another work of Lucian's, Icaromenippus, Selene the Moon complains to the titular character about philosophers wanting to stir up strife and sour feelings between her and her brother with their theories about them—namely, that the moon steals her spurious light from the sun (compare the Phocylidea, where it is stated that she is not envious that his rays are much stronger than her own[224]), or calling the sun a red-hot lump.[225] Later he is seen feasting with the other gods on Olympus, and prompting Menippus to wonder how can night fall on the Heavens while he is there.[226] In A True Story, the Sun is an inhabited place, ruled by a king named Phaethon, referencing Helios's mythological son.[227] The inhabitants of the Sun are at war with those of the Moon, ruled by King Endymion (Selene's lover), over colonization of the Morning Star (Aphrodite's planet).[228][229]
Diodorus Siculus recorded an unorthodox version of the myth, in which Basileia, who had succeeded her father Uranus to his royal throne, married her brother Hyperion, and had two children, a son Helios and a daughter Selene, both admired for their beauty and their chastity. Because Basileia's other brothers envied these offspring, and feared that Hyperion would try to seize power for himself, conspired against him; they put Hyperion to the sword and drowned Helios in the river Eridanus, while Selene took her own life. After the massacre, Helios appeared in a dream to his grieving mother and assured her and their murderers would be punished, and that he and his sister would now be transformed into immortal, divine natures; what was known as Mene[230] would now be called Selene, and the "holy fire" in the heavens would bear his own name.[34][231]
It was said that due to her burning passion for the mortal Endymion, his sister Selene would often abandon the night sky to be with him;[232] during those nights that she was too preoccupied, she would give her moon chariot to Helios to drive it; although unfamiliar at first, in time he learnt to drive it like his own.[233]
Claudian wrote that in his infancy, Helios (along with Selene–their sister Eos is not mentioned with them) was nursed by his aunt the water goddess Tethys, back in the old days when his light was not as strong and his rays had not grown yet.[234]
Pausanias writes that the people of Titane in Sicyon held that Titan was a brother of Helios, the first inhabitant of Titane after whom the town was named;[235] Titan however was generally identified as Helios himself, instead of being a separate figure.[236] Pausanias rationalizes this by suggesting that Titan was probably just a man who observed the seasons of the year when the sun ripens seeds and fruits, and was said to be Helios's brother (who otherwise is characterized as an only son) for this reason.[237]
In Sophocles's play
In
According to sixth century BC lyric poet Stesichorus, with Helios in his palace lives his mother Theia.[240]
In the myth of the dragon Python's slaying by Apollo, the slain serpent's corpse is said to have rotten in the strength of the "shining Hyperion," as the god himself promises.[241]
Aelian wrote that the wolf is a beloved animal to Helios;[242] the wolf is also Apollo's sacred animal, and the god was often known as Apollo Lyceus, "wolf Apollo".[243]
Consorts and children
The god Helios is the head of a large family, and the places that venerated him the most would also typically claim both mythological and genealogical descent from him;[190] for example, the Cretans traced the ancestry of their king Idomeneus to Helios through his daughter Pasiphaë.[150] Though Helios had several love affairs, they were far less numerous than those of other gods, especially Zeus, since, unsurprisingly, in a warm climate it would be more likely for the rain god rather than the sun god to be seen as the fertility god.[221]
Traditionally the Oceanid nymph Perse was seen as the sun god's wife[244] by whom he had various children (depending on the version), most notably the goddess Circe from the Odyssey, the king of Colchis Aeëtes, Minos' wife Pasiphaë, Perses who usurped his brother Aeëtes's kingdom, and in some versions the Corinthian king Aloeus. It is unclear what caused Perse and Helios, who is the source of all light in the world, to be the parents of such dark and mysterious children.[245] Helios distributed the land between Aloeus[246] and Aeëtes; the former received Sicyon, the latter Corinth, but Aeëtes not desiring the land, decided to make his kingdom in Colchis.[247] Ioannes Tzetzes adds Calypso, otherwise the daughter of Atlas, to the list of children Helios had by Perse, perhaps due to the similarities of the roles and personalities she and Circe display in the Odyssey as hosts of Odysseus.[248]
Helios brought Aeëtes to Colchis, his eventual kingdom, on his chariot; in the same ride he transferred Circe to her own abode, Aeaea.
As father of Aeëtes, Helios was also the grandfather of Medea and would play a significant role in Euripides' rendition of her fate in
However he is also stated to have married other women instead like Rhodos in the
The mortal king of Elis Augeas was said to be Helios' son, but Pausanias states that his actual father was the mortal king Eleios; the people of Elis claimed he was the son of the Sun because of the similarity of their names, and because they wanted to glorify the king.[267]
In some rare versions, Helios is the father, rather than the brother, of his sisters Selene and Eos. A scholiast on Euripides explained that Selene was said to be his daughter since she partakes of the solar light, and changes her shape based on the position of the sun.[268]
Consort | Children | Consort | Children | Consort | Children | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Athena | • The Corybantes[269] | Rhodos (a nymph[270]) |
• The Heliadae[f] | Ephyra (an Oceanid[272] )
|
• Aeëtes | ||
Aegle, (a Naiad[273][274]) |
• The Charites[275] | 1. Tenages | Antiope[276] | • Aeëtes | |||
1. Aglaea "splendor" |
2. Macareus
|
• Aloeus | |||||
2. Euphrosyne "mirth" |
3. Actis | Gaia | • Tritopatores[277] | ||||
3. Thalia "flourishing" |
4. Triopas | • Bisaltes[278] | |||||
Oceanid )
|
• The Heliades[279] | 5. Candalus | • Achelous[280][281] | ||||
1. Aetheria | 6. Ochimus | Hyrmine[282] or | • Augeas | ||||
2. Helia | 7. Cercaphus | Iphiboe[283] or | |||||
3. Merope | 8. Auges | Nausidame[284] | |||||
4. Phoebe | 9. Thrinax | Demeter or | • Acheron[285] | ||||
5. Dioxippe | • Electryone | Gaia | |||||
• Phaethon[286] | Oceanid[287] )
|
• Calypso | unknown woman | • Aethon[288] | |||
• Astris[289] | • Aeëtes | unknown woman | • Aix[290] | ||||
• Lampetia | • Perses | unknown woman | • Aloeus[291] | ||||
Rhode (a Naiad[116]) |
• Phaethon | • Circe | unknown woman | • Camirus[292] | |||
Prote (a Nereid[293] )
|
• Pasiphaë | unknown woman | • Ichnaea[294] | ||||
• The Heliades | • Aloeus | unknown woman | • Mausolus[295] | ||||
Oceanid[296] )
|
• Phaethusa | Asterope[297] | • Aeëtes | unknown woman | • Phorbas[298] | ||
• Lampetia[299][300] | • Circe | unknown woman | • Sterope[301][302] | ||||
Oceanid[303] )
|
• Phasis
|
Oceanid[304] )
|
• Astris[305] | unknown woman | • Eos[306] | ||
Leda[307] | • Helen | Leucothoe[154][308] or | • Thersanon | unknown woman | • Selene[309] | ||
Oceanid[154] )
|
• No known offspring | Leucothea[310] | unknown woman | • Hemera[311] | |||
Selene | • The Horae (possibly[312][313]) |
Crete[314][283] | • Pasiphae | unknown woman | • Dirce[315] | ||
unknown woman[316] | • Aeëtes | unknown woman | • Clymenus[118] | unknown woman | • Lelex[317] | ||
• Perses | unknown woman | • Chrysus[318] | |||||
unknown woman | • Cos[319] | unknown woman | • Cronus[320] (Orphic) |
- Anaxibia, an Indian Naiad, was lusted after by Helios according to Pseudo-Plutarch.[321]
Worship
Cult
Archaic and Classical Athens
Scholarly focus on the ancient Greek cults of Helios (as well as those of his two sisters) has generally been rather slim, partially due to how scarce both literary and archaeological sources are, and of the scattered throughout the ancient Greek world and handful cults the three siblings received, Helios was undoubtedly awarded the lion's share.
One answer as to the reason why for that could be that the ancient Greeks envisioned their gods as very human-like, with the sun and the moon deemed too impersonal for the Greeks to relate and connect to, who would rather pray to gods like Hermes for help and protection, who could respond to concerns in a more human way; in contrast, Helios and Selene, the divine providers of heavenly light, were seen as unlikely to cease their daily routine of rising and setting in order to intervene in human affairs so they could help them.
The tension between the mainstream traditional religious veneration of Helios, which had become enriched with ethical values and poetical symbolism in Pindar, Aeschylus and Sophocles,[327] and the Ionian proto-scientific examination of the sun, a phenomenon of the study Greeks termed meteora, clashed in the trial of Anaxagoras c. 450 BC, in which Anaxagoras asserted that the Sun was in fact a gigantic red-hot ball of metal.[328] His trial was a forerunner of the culturally traumatic trial of Socrates for irreligion, in 399 BC.
Hellenistic period
Helios was not worshipped in Athens until the Hellenistic period, in post-classical times.[329] His worship might be described as a product of the Hellenistic era, influenced perhaps by the general spread of cosmic and astral beliefs during the reign of Alexander III.[330] A scholiast on Sophocles wrote that the Athenians did not offer wine as an offering to the Helios among other gods, making instead nephalia, or wineless, sober sacrifices;[331][332] Athenaeus also reported that those who sacrificed to him did not offer wine, but brought honey instead, to the altars reasoning that the god who held the cosmos in order should not succumb to drunkenness.[333] Lysimachides in the first century BC or first century AD reported of a festival Skira:
that the skiron is a large sunshade under which the priestess of Athena, the priest of Poseidon, and the priest of Helios walk as it is carried from the acropolis to a place called Skiron.[334]
During the Thargelia, a festival in honour of Apollo, the Athenians had cereal offerings for Helios and the Horae.[335] They were honoured with a procession, due to their clear connections and relevance to agriculture.[336][337] A recently published decree mentions offerings to "Sun, Seasons and Apollo",[338] showing how the three of them were associated during a festival that took place during the intense heats of the summer.[339] The procession did not neglect cereal harvest, but also introduced non-cereal as well as animal foods, all dependent for ripening on Helios and the Seasons.[339][340] Helios and the Horae were also apparently worshipped during another Athenian festival held in honor of Apollo, the Pyanopsia with a feast;[341][337] an attested procession, independent from the one recorded at the Thargelia, might have been in their honour.[338]
Side B of LSCG 21.B19 from the Piraeus Asclepium prescribe cake offerings to several gods, among them Helios and Mnemosyne,[342] two gods linked to incubation through dreams,[343] who are offered a type of honey cake called arester and a honeycomb.[344][345] The cake was put on fire during the offering.[346] A type of cake called orthostates[347][348] made of wheaten and barley flour was offered to him and the Hours.[349][350] Phthois, another flat cake[351] made with cheese, honey and wheat was also offered to him among many other gods.[350]
In many places people kept herds of red and white cattle in his honour, and white animals of several kinds, but especially white horses, were considered to be sacred to him.[46] Ovid writes that horses were sacrificed to him because no slow animal should be offered to the swift god.[352]
In Plato's Republic Helios, the Sun, is the symbolic offspring of the idea of the Good.[353]
The ancient Greeks called Sunday "day of the Sun" (ἡμέρα Ἡλίου) after him.[354] According to Philochorus, Athenian historian and Atthidographer of the 3rd century BC, the first day of each month was sacred to Helios.[355]
It was during the Roman period that Helios actually rose into an actual significant religious figure and was elevated in public cult.[356][330]
Rhodes
The island of
The worship of Helios at Rhodes included a ritual in which a
The best of these are, first, the Colossus of Helius, of which the author of the iambic verse says, "seven times ten cubits in height, the work of Chares the Lindian"; but it now lies on the ground, having been thrown down by an earthquake and broken at the knees. In accordance with a certain oracle, the people did not raise it again.[371]
According to most contemporary descriptions, the Colossus stood approximately 70
, and the Rhodians did not build it again, in accordance with an oracle.In Rhodes, Helios seems to have absorbed the worship and cult of the island's local hero and mythical founder Tlepolemus.[373] In ancient Greek city foundation, the use of the archegetes in its double sense of both founder and progenitor of a political order, or a polis, can be seen with Rhodes; real prominence was transferred from the local hero Tlepolemus, onto the god, Helios, with an appropriate myth explaining his relative insignificance; thus games originally celebrated for Tlepolemus were now given to Helios, who was seen as both ancestor and founder of the polis.[374] For the Rhodian people, Tlepolemus was an archegetes and not a god, but he was offered sacrifices as if he were one; the rituals performed in his honour were of the kind commonly performed for a god.[373] A sanctuary of Helios and the nymphs stood in Loryma near Lindos.[375]
The priesthood of Helios was, at some point, appointed by lot, though in the great city a man and his two sons held the office of priesthood for the sun god in succession.[376]
According to Suda, the shrine of Helios in Rhodes was called Aleion/Haleion (Ἄλειον).[377]
Peloponnese
The Dorians also seem to have revered Helios, and to have hosted His primary cult on the mainland. The scattering of cults of the sun god in
Helios was an important god in Corinth and the greater Corinthia region. A reconstruction of Corinth's calendar from those used by its colonies reveals a summer month called "Of the [festival of the ?] Solstice", or Haliotropios in Greek (tropai = "solstice");[378] Each city in Ancient Greece had its own lunar-solar calendar organized around the annual solar cycle of solstices and equinoxes.[378] Pausanias in his Description of Greece describes how Helios and Poseidon vied over the city, with Poseidon getting the isthmus of Corinth and Helios being awarded with the Acrocorinth.[184] Helios' prominence in Corinth might go as back as Mycenaean times, and predate Poseidon's arrival[379] or it might be due to Oriental immigration; it is hard to determine.[380] At Sicyon, Helios had an altar behind Hera's sanctuary.[381] It would seem that for the Corinthians, Helios was notable enough to even have control over thunder, which is otherwise the domain of the sky god Zeus.[190]
Helios had a cult in
In Argolis, an altar was dedicated to Helios near Mycenae,[387] and another in Troezen, where he was worshipped as the God of Freedom, seeing how the Troezenians had escaped slavery at the hands of Xerxes I.[388] Over at Hermione stood a temple of his.[379][389][390] He appears to have also been venerated in Epidaurus.[391]
In Arcadia, he had a cult in Megalopolis as the Saviour, and an altar near Mantineia.[392]
Elsewhere
Traces of Helios's worship can also be found in
In his little-attested cults in
Archaeological evidence has proven the existence of a shrine to Helios and
Helios also had a cult in the region of
Helios is also depicted on first century BC coins found at Halicarnassus,[404] Syracuse in Sicily[405] and at Zacynthus.[406] From Pergamon originates a hymn to Helios in the style of Euripides[407] and it is known that he had a small altar there at the sanctuary of Demeter, along with several other gods,[408] possibly in connection with the Orphic mysteries.[409]
In
The inference suggested by his cult is that sun worship was once been prevalent and powerful among early Greek peoples and pre-Greeks, but very few communities kept those cults as a potent factor of their state-religion as time passed. The fact that he was not seen as a 'high god' in most poleis may reflect an aversion to worship of palpable objects, like with the cults of Gaia the earth, as worship of non-visible, non-material deities such as Zeus, Apollo and Athena was more in line with the Hellenic idea of godhood.[410] However, during later period of Greco-Roman paganism one can discern a shift in this religious bias; a wave of Oriental influence brought certain back to the sun-god, leading to the rising of Sol Invictus in Rome.[410] It is often impossible to determine how many of Helios' cults are the result of this later force/boost, as seen with his cult in Mantineia.[410]
A passage from the Orphic Lithica mentions a ritual performed to Helios and Gaia by three young men who sacrifice a snake and then feast on it.[411]
The Alexander Romance names a temple of Helios in the city of Alexandria.[412]
Other functions
In oath-keeping
Helios is a god who both sees and hears everything, who can spy among gods and mortal men alike.[413] Gods were often called upon by the Greeks when an oath was sworn; Helios is among the three deities (the other two being Zeus and Gaia) to be invoked in the Iliad to witness the truce between Greeks and Trojans.[414] Due to his job as sun in the sky, he was in the position of witnessing everything on earth with his infallible eye, and it is thus fitting that he was widely invoked, along with Zeus, in oath-taking, making sure there was no escape if the oath was violated. For example, both are invoked in an oath at Eresos and in one by Eumenes I of Pergamon; a chthonic aspect of the god is apparent in the cases where he is invoked in oaths alongside subterranean gods and goddesses such as Hades, Gaia, Hecate and the Furies.[415] Helios together with Zeus represent the sky, as Gaia and Demeter the earth.[415][416]
The invocation of gods such as
Helios was invoked as a witness, among several other gods besides Zeus such as Ares, Athena and Poseidon, to several alliances such as the one between
In magic
He also had a role in necromancy magic. The
We adjure you by the heavenly god [Zeus] and Helios and Selene and the gods of the underworld, who receive us, that no one [. . .] will throw another corpse upon our bones.[426]
Helios was also often invoked in funeral imprecations, ranking third in terms of frequency, after chthonic and lunar gods, and usually in the company of another lunar deity.[427] Helios might have been chosen for this sort of magic because as an all-seeing god he could see everything on earth, even hidden crimes, and thus he was a very popular god to invoke in prayers for vengeance.[427] Additionally, in ancient magic evil-averting aid and apotropaic defense were credited to Helios.[428] Some magic rituals were associated with the engraving of images and stones, as with one such spell which asks Helios to consecrate the stone and fill with luck, honour, success and strength, thus giving the user incredible power.[429]
Helios was also associated with love magic, much like Aphrodite, as there seems to have been another but rather poorly documented tradition of people asking him for help in such love matters,[430] including homoerotic love[431] and magical recipes invoking him for affection spells.[432] Accordingly, a scholium on Theocritus claims that Pindar wrote that lovesick young men would pray to Helios for help as lovesick young women would pray to his sister Selene.[433] Plutarch writes that Selene was called upon for love affairs because she is ever yearning for and pursuing her brother.[434]
In dreams
It has been suggested that in Ancient Greece people would reveal their dreams to Helios and the sky or the air in order to avert any evil foretold or presaged in them as
According to Artemidorus' Oneirocritica, the rich dreaming of transforming into a god was an auspicious sign, as long as the transformation had no deficiencies, citing the example of a man who dreamt he was Helios but wore a sun crown of just eleven rays.[47] He wrote that the sun god was also an auspicious sign for the poor.[439] In dreams, Helios could either appear in 'sensible' form (the orb of the sun) or his 'intelligible' form (the humanoid god).[440]
Late antiquity
By
The last pagan emperor of Rome, Julian, made Helios the primary deity of his revived pagan religion, which combined elements of Mithraism with Neoplatonism. For Julian, Helios was a triunity: The One, which governs the highest realm containing Plato's Forms, or intelligible gods; Helios-Mithras, the supreme god of the Intellectual realm; and the Sun, the physical manifestation of Helios in the Encosmic, or visible realm. Because the primary location of Helios in this scheme was the "middle" realm, Julian considered him to be a mediator and unifier not just of the three realms of being, but of all things (which was a concept likely imported from Mithraism, and also may have been influenced by the Christian idea of the Logos).[55] Julian's theological conception of Helios has been described as "practically monotheistic", in contrast to earlier Neoplatonists like Iamblichus,[55] though he also included the other traditional gods worshiped around the ancient Mediterranean as both distinct entities and also certain principles or manifestations that emanate from Helios.[55]
A mosaic found in the
In the Greek Magical Papyri
Helios figured prominently in the Greek Magical Papyri, a collection of hymns, rituals, and magic spells used from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD all around the Greco-Roman world. In these mostly fragmentary texts, Helios is credited with a broad domain, being regarded as the creator of life, the lord of the heavens and the cosmos, and the god of the sea. He is said to take the form of 12 animals representing each hour of the day, a motif also connected with the 12 signs of the zodiac.[15]
The Papyri often syncretize Helios with a variety of related deities. He is described as "seated on a lotus, decorated with rays", in the manner of
Helios is also assimilated with
In many of the Papyri, Helios is also strongly identified with Iao, a name derived from that of the Hebrew god Yahweh, and shares several of his titles including Sabaoth and Adonai.[15] He is also assimilated as the Agathos Daemon (called "the Agathodaimon, the god of the gods"), who is also identified elsewhere in the texts as "the greatest god, lord Horus Harpokrates".[15]
The Neoplatonist philosophers
Epithets
The Greek sun god had various bynames or epithets, which over time in some cases came to be considered separate deities associated with the Sun. Among these are:
Acamas (/ɑːˈkɑːmɑːs/; ah-KAH-mahss; Άκάμας, "Akàmas"), meaning "tireless, unwearying", as he repeats his never-ending routine day after day without cease.
Apollo (/əˈpɒləʊ/; ə-POL-oh; Ἀπόλλων, "Apóllōn") here understood to mean "destroyer", the sun as a more destructive force.[125]
Callilampetes (/kəˌliːlæmˈpɛtiːz/; kə-LEE-lam-PET-eez; Καλλιλαμπέτης, "Kallilampétēs"), "he who glows lovely".[448]
Elasippus (/ɛlˈæsɪpəs/; el-AH-sip-əss; Ἐλάσιππος, "Elásippos"), meaning "horse-driving".[449]
Elector (/əˈlɛktər/; ə-LEK-tər; Ἠλέκτωρ, "Ēléktōr") of uncertain derivation (compare Electra), often translated as "beaming" or "radiant", especially in the combination Ēlektōr Hyperiōn.[450]
Eleutherius (/iːˈljuːθəriəs/; ee-LOO-thər-ee-əs; Ἐλευθέριος, "Eleuthérios) "the liberator", epithet under which he was worshipped in Troezen in Argolis,[388] also shared with Dionysus and Eros.
Hagnus (/ˈhæɡnəs/; HAG-nəs; Ἁγνός, Hagnós), meaning "pure", "sacred" or "purifying."[108]
Hecatus (/ˈhɛkətəs/; HEK-ə-təs; Ἕκατος, "Hékatos"), "from afar," also Hecatebolus (/hɛkəˈtɛbəʊləs/; hek-ə-TEB-əʊ-ləs; Ἑκατήβολος, "Hekatḗbolos") "the far-shooter", i.e. the sun's rays considered as arrows.[451]
Horotrophus (/hɔːrˈɔːtrɔːfəs/; hor-OT-roff-əss; Ὡροτρόφος, "Hо̄rotróphos"), "nurturer of the Seasons/Hours", in combination with kouros, "youth".[452]
Hyperion (/haɪˈpɪəriən/; hy-PEER-ree-ən; Ὑπερίων, "Hyperíōn") and Hyperionides (/haɪˌpɪəriəˈnaɪdiːz/; hy-PEER-ee-ə-NY-deez; Ὑπεριονίδης, "Hyperionídēs"), "superus, high up" and "son of Hyperion" respectively, the sun as the one who is above,[453] and also the name of his father.
Isodaetes (/ˌaɪsəˈdeɪtiːz/; EYE-sə-DAY-teez; Ἰσοδαίτης, "Isodaítēs"), literally "he that distributes equal portions", cult epithet also shared with Dionysus.[454]
Paean (/ˈpiːən/ PEE-ən; Παιάν, Paiān), physician, healer, a healing god and an epithet of Apollo and Asclepius.[455]
Panoptes (/pæˈnɒptiːs/; pan-OP-tees; Πανόπτης, "Panóptēs") "all-seeing" and Pantepoptes (/pæntɛˈpɒptiːs/; pan-tep-OP-tees; Παντεπόπτης, "Pantepóptēs") "all-supervising", as the one who witnessed everything that happened on earth.
Pasiphaes (/pəˈsɪfiiːs/; pah-SIF-ee-eess; Πασιφαής, "Pasiphaḗs"), "all-shining", also the name of one of his daughters.[456]
Patrius (/ˈpætriəs/; PAT-ree-əs; Πάτριος, "Pátrios") "of the fathers, ancestral", related to his role as primogenitor of royal lines in several places.[426]
Phaethon (/ˈfeɪθən/; FAY-thən; Φαέθων, "Phaéthōn") "the radiant", "the shining", also the name of his son and daughter.
Phasimbrotus (/ˌfæsɪmˈbrɒtəs/; FASS-im-BROT-əs; Φασίμβροτος, "Phasímbrotos") "he who sheds light to the mortals", the sun.
Philonamatus (/ˌfɪloʊˈnæmətəs/; FIL-oh-NAM-ə-təs; Φιλονάματος, "Philonámatos") "water-loving", a reference to him rising from and setting in the ocean.[457]
Phoebus (/ˈfiːbəs/ FEE-bəs; Φοῖβος, Phoîbos), literally "bright", several Roman authors applied Apollo's byname to their sun god Sol.
Sirius (/ˈsɪrɪəs/; SEE-ree-əss; Σείριος, "Seírios") literally meaning "scorching", and also the name of the Dog Star.[458][122]
Soter (/ˈsoʊtər/; SOH-tər; Σωτὴρ, "Sōtḗr") "the saviour", epithet under which he was worshipped in Megalopolis, Arcadia.[459]
Terpsimbrotus (/ˌtɜːrpsɪmˈbrɒtəs/; TURP-sim-BROT-əs; Τερψίμβροτος, "Terpsímbrotos") "he who gladdens mortals", with his warm, life-giving beams.
Titan (/ˈtaɪtən/; TY-tən; Τιτάν, "Titán"), possibly connected to τιτώ meaning "day" and thus "god of the day".[460]
Whether Apollo's epithets Aegletes and Asgelatas in the island of Anaphe, both connected to light, were borrowed from epithets of Helios either directly or indirectly is hard to say.[456]
Identification with other gods
Apollo
Helios is sometimes identified with Apollo: "Different names may refer to the same being," Walter Burkert argues, "or else they may be consciously equated, as in the case of Apollo and Helios."[461] Apollo was associated with the Sun as early as the fifth century BC, though widespread conflation between him and the Sun god was a later phaenomenon.[359]
In Homeric literature, Apollo was clearly identified as a different god, a plague-dealer with a silver bow, rather than a golden one and no solar features. The earliest certain reference to Apollo being identified with Helios appears in the surviving fragments of Euripides' play Phaethon in a speech near the end[125] – Clymene, Phaethon's mother, laments that Helios has destroyed her child, that Helios whom men rightly call Apollo (the name Apollo is here understood to mean Apollon "Destroyer").
By
The identification became a commonplace in philosophic texts and appears in the writing of
- But having gone down into Hades because of his wife and seeing what sort of things were there, he did not continue to worship Dionysus, because of whom he was famous, but he thought Helios to be the greatest of the gods, Helios whom he also addressed as Apollo. Rousing himself each night toward dawn and climbing the mountain called Pangaion, he would await the Sun's rising, so that he might see it first. Therefore, Dionysus, being angry with him, sent the
Dionysus and Asclepius are sometimes also identified with this Apollo Helios.[463][464]
According to Athenaeus, sixth century BC
Sleep and Death, awful gods. The glowing Sun never looks upon them with his beams, neither as he goes up into heaven, nor as he comes down from heaven.[477]
During the time of
Ovid is largely responsible for the prevalence of the idea of Apollo being the Sun god in modern times, however he himself did not identify Apollo with Sol in his works.:
Nine crescent moons had since grown full
when the goddess [Diana] faint from the chase in her brother's hot sunlight
found a cool grove out of which a murmuring stream ran,
winding over fine sand.
The brother is no doubt the Sun, Ovid apparently at first glance naming Diana as the Sun's sister; but in the very same passage, the Moon/Luna is mentioned, which may be the reason Ovid would use the word "brother" seemingly in relation to Diana in what is a verse about Sol.[484]
Usil
The Etruscan god of the Sun, equivalent to Helios, was
Zeus
Helios is also sometimes conflated in classical literature with the highest Olympian god, Zeus. An attested cult epithet of Zeus is Aleios Zeus, or "Zeus the Sun," from the Doric form of Helios' name.
- "Zeus, Hades, Helios-Dionysus, three gods in one godhead!"
Although the connection of Helios to Zeus does not seem to have basis in early Greek cult and writings, nevertheless there are many examples of direct identification in later times.[496] The Hellenistic period gave birth to Serapis, a Greco-Egyptian deity conceived by the Greeks as a chthonic aspect of Zeus, whose solar nature is indicated by the Sun crown and rays the Greeks depicted him with.[497] Several Greek deities contributed to Serapis' "godhood" in addition to those two, like Asclepius, Dionysus and Hades; from Zeus and Helios Serapis draws his aspects of sovereignty and sun god.[498] Frequent joint dedications to "Zeus-Serapis-Helios" have been found all over the Mediterranean,[497] for example, the Anastasy papyrus (now housed in the British Museum) equates Helios to not just Zeus and Serapis but also Mithras,[499] and a series of inscriptions from Trachonitis give evidence of the cult of "Zeus the Unconquered Sun".[500] There is evidence of Zeus being worshipped as a solar god in the Aegean island of Amorgos, based on a lacunose inscription Ζεὺς Ἥλ[ιο]ς ("Zeus the Sun"), which, if correct, could mean that Sun elements in Zeus' worship could be as early as the fifth century BC.[501]
An offering made to Zeus-Helios, who had an established cult in Anatolia, was found in a votive inscription east of ancient Sinope,[502] and in Ostia, Serapis was depicted on a disc sporting a corona radiata, in the manner of Helios.[503] A joint dedication to "Zeus Helios Megas Serapis" was found on a gazophylakion in a street market in Alexandria. The subject of the inscription, in side A of the block, is a dedication of a gazophylakion and several objects to those gods made by Publius Iulius Pius, a centurio cohortis of a Liburnian ship.[504]
When quoting this in his Hymn to King Helios, Emperor Julian replaced the compound name Helios-Dionysus with Serapis, whose native Egyptian counterpart Osiris was identified with Dionysus. On the basis of this oracle, Julian concluded that "among the intellectual gods, Helios and Zeus have a joint or rather a single sovereignty."[505] The common identity of the two gods is apparent in several of the emperor's works, for example his Against the Galileans where Zeus and Helios are jointly the parents of Asclepius, the god of medicine;[506] in To The Mother of the Gods Zeus and Helios are interchangeably named as the consort and co-ruler of the Anatolian mother goddess Cybele; and in Against Heracleios, when Julian asks Zeus which is the way leading to him, Zeus simply appoints Helios.[507] Julian also observed that in the Odyssey, when Helios threatened Zeus to shine among the dead in the Underworld should his wishes not be heard after his sacred cows had been devoured, Zeus gave in straight away, and did not boast of his strength and superior power as he did when he confronted the other Olympian gods in the Iliad, and instead tells Helios to continue shedding his light to the world.[40]
Hades
Helios seems to have been connected to some degree with Hades, the god of the Underworld. A dedicatory inscription from
An old oracle from Claros said that the names of Zeus, Hades, Helios, Dionysus and Jao all represented the Sun at different seasons.[515] Macrobius wrote that Iao/Jao is "Hades in winter, Zeus in spring, Helios in summer, and Iao in autumn."[516]
Cronus
Diodorus Siculus reported that the Chaldeans called Cronus (Saturnus) by the name Helios, or the Sun, and he explained that this was because Saturn was the "most conspicuous" of the planets.[517]
Iconography
Depiction and symbols
Helios often appears in ancient pottery and coins. The earliest depictions of Helios in a humanoid form date from the late sixth and early fifth centuries BC in Attic black-figure vases, and typically show him frontally as a bearded man on his chariot with a sun disk. A red-figure on a polychrome bobbin by a follower of the Brygos painter already signifies a shift in the god's depiction, painting him as a youthful, beardless figure, while an Attic column krater now kept in the Detroit Institute of Arts is among the earliest examples of a shift in Helios' depiction from frontal to profile, though it did keep the bearded man imagery.[165] Likewise a late sixth century or early fifth century BC lekythos attributed to the Sappho Painter shows him as a bearded male, his long hair bound up in a krobylos, holding a goad and wearing a finely pleated long linen tunic of a charioteer.[91] In later art, he is consistently drawn as beardless and young. In it, he is typically depicted with a radiant crown;[518] a radiate god, with the right hand often raised, a gesture of power (which came to be a definitional feature of solar iconography), the left hand usually holding a whip or a globe.[519] By the middle of the fifth century BC Helios has lost his beard, as his identification with the youthful, fair Apollo has begun,[190] however Helios is still depicted with a face fuller than Apollo's.[48] In Rhodian coins, he was shown as beardless god, with thick and flowing hair, surrounded by beams.[520] He was also presented as a young man clad in tunic, with curling hair and wearing buskins.[521] While early depictions of Helios would show him holding a whip and reins of the quadriga, later ones supplant the whip and reins for a globe on the left hand and a raised right hand.[519] Just like Selene, who is sometimes depicted with a lunar disk rather than a crescent, Helios too has his own solar one instead of a sun crown in some depictions, which radiates, unlike Selene's own which does not.[522] It is likely that Helios' later image as a warrior-charioteer might be traced back to the Mycenaean period;[523] the symbol of the disc of the sun is displayed in scenes of rituals from both Mycenae and Tiryns, and large amounts of chariots used by the Mycenaeans are recorded in Linear B tablets.[524]
In archaic art, Helios rising in his chariot was a type of motive.[525] Helios in ancient pottery is usually depicted rising from the sea in his four-horse chariot, either as a single figure or connecting to some myth, indicating that it takes place at dawn; often he is accompanied by Selene (Moon), Eos (Dawn), Hemera (Day) and the Stars. He is often present at the abduction of Persephone, the Judgement of Paris, and Heracles shooting arrows at him.[526] In an Attic black-figure vase, now kept at the National Archaeological Museum of Taranto in Italy, attributed to the Theseus Painter, shows Heracles sitting on the shores of the Ocean river, while next to him a pair of arrows protrude from Helios, crowned with a solar disk and driving his chariot.[527]
Helios adorned the east pediment of the
The ancient sculptor
Helios appears infrequently in gold jewelry before Roman times; extant examples include a gold medallion with its bust from the Gulf of Elaia in Anatolia, where he's depicted frontally with a head of unruly hair, and a golden medallion of the Pelinna necklace.[401] The most famous representations of Helios, namely his statue in the east pediment of the Parthenon, Lysippus' chariot statue for the Rhodians and the Colossus of Rhodes were sources of inspiration for various other artworks of Helios in antiquity; the Pelinna medallion may also be following that same tradition.[401]
The association of Alexander's features with solar iconography are maybe set around the time of Lysippus' Chariot with the Sun and Chares' Colossus; Alexander-like facial features can be traced on the fourth century-onward Rhodian coins depicting Helios' sun-crowned head; many Hellenistic and Roman images of Helios and then
Late Roman era
Helios was also frequently depicted in mosaics, usually surrounded by the twelve
The sun god was depicted in mosaics in three places of the Land of Israel; at the synagogues of
Helios and Selene were also personified in the mosaic of the Monastery of Lady Mary at Beit She'an, where he is crowned with a seven-rayed halo while she wears a crescent upon her head, both holding flaming torches, surrounded by the personifications of the twelve months. His, on the left representing the day, is the bust portraying a bearded male wearing a tunic and a chlamys.[550] Here he is not shown as Sol Invictus, the Unconquered Sun, but rather as a celestial body; he is the guardian of creation and changing of the seasons, his red hair symbolizing the sun.[545]
In post-antiquity art
In painting
Helios/Sol had little independent identity and presence during the
In the same vein, Apollo is sometimes depicted with Eos/Aurora, the goddess of the dawn and the other one of Helios' sisters other than Selene; in a drawing by Italian painter Lelio Orsi from c. 1544–1545, the god Apollo leads his quadriga, loosely holding onto the reins of the chariot with a bow and quiver slung over his left shoulder; Aurora, buoyed on a pillow of cloud, precedes the chariot, as she announced his arrival, strewing flowers in Apollo's path, as behind them emerges the semicircle of the rising sun, its rays illuminating the horses as well as the forms of Apollo and Aurora.[558] The ceiling fresco L'Aurora by Italian painter Guido Reni, painted in 1614, is another example of a Baroque painting where Eos/Aurora is seen leading Apollo, who is surrounded by the Hours and a luminous halo.[559]
Additionally to the chariot, Apollo is often drawn with a solar halo around his head and depicted in scenes of Helios' mythology, like informing Vulcan of Venus's affair with Mars,[560][555] seducing Leucothoe or refusing to look at Clytie as she looks longingly upon him, or being accompanied by Aurora, the goddess of the dawn who opens the gates for him to pass through each morning. Accordingly, in depictions of Phaethon meeting his father and asking him the privilege of driving the sun chariot, artists gave to Phaethon's father the appearance and attributes of Apollo, despite his genealogy; thus Apollo the sun god is shown sitting on a throne of clouds, with a lyre ever by his side.[561] Giambattista Tiepolo, an Italian artist, painted oil on canvas the psychological moment when Phaethon made his daring wish, where Apollo, as the father, bathed in an aureole of light, vainly attempts to dissuade his son while the boy gestures at his father's horses, as described by Ovid; his golden chariot and horses are there too, as he is attended by the winged Horae, the goddesses of the seasons, and Saturn, here the god of time.[562]
In literature
A love affair between the Sun god and the
French composer
Gerhart Hauptmann wrote a long poem Helios und Phaethon, which, unlike other retellings of the myth, omits entirely the cosmic disaster Phaethon caused in order to focus on the relationship between the divine father and his mortal son, as Phaethon tries to convince his father he is well-suited for his five steeds, while Helios tries to dissuade his ambitious child, but eventually consents and gives him his reins and steeds to drive for a single day.[569] In James Joyce's book Ulysses, episode 14 is titled Oxen of the Sun, after the story of Odysseus' men and the cattle of Helios in book twelve of the Odyssey. The episode takes place in late morning at the Holles Street Maternity Hospital, and its symbolism is perhaps the most challenging in the book; the young men that gathered in the maternity hospital, due to their indecent behavior, feel like they committed a sacrilege against the women in labour that were giving birth to new life in the hospital; those mothers were held as sacred, akin to symbols of fertility, not unlike the sacred cattle of Helios whom the mortal crew so impiously slew and ate.[570]
Namesakes
Helios is the Greek proper name for the Sun for both Ancient and Modern Greek,[571] and additionally Helios, one of the craters of Hyperion, a moon of Saturn which bears Helios' father's name, is named after this Greek god. Several words relating to the Sun derive from "helios", including the rare adjective heliac (meaning "solar"),[572] heliosphere, perihelion and aphelion among others.
The
Helius is a genus of crane fly in the family Limoniidae that shares its name with the god.
A pair of
Orinos Helios ("mountainous sun") is the name of a brand of wine in Greece, produced in Domaine Helios in Nemea.[577]
In the Wii game Metroid Prime 3: Corruption, the second Seed guardian is named after Helios.[578] In the Deus Ex series, there is an AI named after Helios.[579] In China, a crime thriller named Helios directed by Longman Leung was released in 2015.[580][581][582] In the Bakugan franchise, a draconic Pyrus Bakugan is named after Helios.
Modern reception
Helios often appears in modern and popular culture due to his status as the god of the sun.
Helios has been portrayed in many modern works of literature such as in Gareth Hinds' 2010 version of The Odyssey[583] and in 2018's The Burning Maze[584] in The Trials of Apollo series by Rick Riordan.
Helios has been portrayed in many video games, such as in Sony Computer Entertainment's God of War: Chains of Olympus, God of War II and God of War III where the character is a boss and plays an antagonist role against Kratos.[585]
Gallery
-
Helios statue by Johannes Benk (1873) at the Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.
-
Bronze statuette of Helios with a seven-pointed gloriole and breastplate.
-
Helios statuette, Antalya Museum.
-
Mithraic relief with original colors (reconstitution).
-
Jesus Christ-Helios mosaic.
-
Helios on a plate with Cybele.
-
Helios on a Rhodian coin, München, Staatliche Münzsammlung.
-
Helios with a chlamys.
-
Horses of the Sun, Musée de Sens.
-
The Colossus of Rhodes.
-
Helios with Selene and Mithras.
-
The Departure of Phaethon, Jean Jouvenet, oil on canvas, 1680s.
Genealogy
Helios's family tree, according to Hesiod's Theogony[586] |
---|
See also
- Ah! Sun-flower
- Amaterasu
- Amshuman
- Five Suns (mythology)
- Guaraci
- Heliopolis, particularly
- Heliopolis in Egypt
- Heliopolis in Lebanon
- Korouhanba
- Piltzintecuhtli (mythology)
- List of solar deities
- Solar Myths
Notes
- ^ Hyperion and Phaethon are also the names of his father and son respectively.
- Homeric Hymn has him as the youngest of the three (with Eos again as the oldest).[32]
- ^ Helios (and Lucian) is wrong here; Cronus had Chiron by Philyra.[87]
- ^ The word used in the ancient text, γαμβρός, translates to both "son-in-law" and "bridegroom".[141]
- ^ Diodorus Siculus writes "battle against the Giants" but the events described do not add up.[162]
- ^ Expert seafarers and astrologers from Rhodes island.[271]
References
- ^ a b Alexander Stuart Murray and William H. Klapp, Handbook of World Mythology, p. 117
- ISBN 978-8187586289. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
- ^ March, s.v. Helios
- ^ Homer, Odyssey, XII.262, 348, 363.
- ^ R.S.P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 516.
- ^ helios. Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^ Toorn et al, s.v. Helios pp 394–395
- ^ ἥλιος in Liddell & Scott (1940), A Greek–English Lexicon, Oxford: Clarendon Press
- ^ Hansen, p. 27
- ^ Suidas, Suda Ἥλιος
- ^ Plato, Cratylus 408e–409a
- ISBN 1556197497.
- ^ Harper, Douglas. "helio-". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2022-06-22.
- ^ Burkert, p. 17
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Pachoumi, Eleni. 2015. "The Religious and Philosophical Assimilations of Helios in the Greek Magical Papyri." Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, 55: 391–413.
- ^ Gelling, P. and Davidson, H.E. The Chariot of the Sun and Other Rites and Symbols of the Northern Bronze Age. London, 1969.
- ^ Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, Vjaceslav V., Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture, p. 634
- ^ a b Adams, p. 164
- ^ Euripides, Robert E. Meagher, Helen, Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1986
- ^ O'Brien, Steven. "Dioscuric Elements in Celtic and Germanic Mythology". Journal of Indo-European Studies 10:1 & 2 (Spring–Summer, 1982), 117–136.
- ^ Skutsch, Otto. "Helen, her Name and Nature". Journal of Hellenic Studies 107 (1987), 188–193.
- ^ Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, Vjaceslav V., Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture, pp 590-591, (1995).
- ^ West, p. 137
- ^ Larson 1995, p. 66
- ^ a b West, p. 230
- ^ Kristiansen, Kristian; Larsson, Thomas B. The Rise of Bronze Age Society: Travels, Transmissions and Transformations p. 297; see also Etymology of Ἑλένη.
- ^ Jevons, Frank Byron (1903). The Makers of Hellas. C. Griffin, Limited. pp. 138–139.
- ^ Kilinski, p. 10
- ^ a b Hesiod, Theogony 371
- ^ a b Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 1.2.2
- ^ Scholia on Pindar, Isthmian Odes 5.2
- ^ a b Homeric Hymns 31.5
- ^ Hyginus, Fabulae preface
- ^ a b Diodorus Siculus, Historic Library 3.57.2–8; Grimal, s. v. Basileia
- ^ Gardner and Jevons, p. 115
- ^ Ogden, p. 8
- ^ a b Powell, Barry B.. "14 Sun, Moon, Earth, Hekatê, and All the Gods". Greek Poems to the Gods: Hymns from Homer to Proclus, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2022, pp. 243-245
- ^ Pindar, Olympian Odes 7.40
- ^ a b c van den Berg, p. 145
- ^ Euripides, Electra 740, West p. 199 note 16
- ^ Mesomedes, Hymn to the Sun 4
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4.727
- ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.23–24
- ^ a b c Fairbanks, pp 160-161
- ^ a b c Seyffert s. v. Helios
- ^ a b Thonemann, p. 109
- ^ a b Stoll, p. 61
- ^ Homeric Hymn 31 to the Sun 31.14–15
- ^ Pindar, Olympian Odes 7.71
- ^ Gordon MacDonald Kirkwood, A Short Guide to Classical Mythology, p. 88
- ^ Fear 2022, p. 173.
- ^ Burkert, W. Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical. Cambridge Mass., 1985, p. 175.
- ^ a b Vergados, p. 286
- ^ a b c d Wright, Wilmer Cave. 1913. The works of Emperor Julian, volume 1.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 12.269; "{Tiresias and Circe} very strongly ordered me to avoid the island of the sun who brings delight to mortals."
- ^ Scholia on Aristophanes Nubes 571
- ^ Aristophanes, The Clouds 563-574, translation by William James Hickie.
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4.673
- ^ Hansen, p. 219
- ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Helios
- ^ Keightley, p. 56, 62
- ^ Aeschylus in his lost play Heliades writes: "Where, in the west, is the bowl wrought by Hephaestus, the bowl of thy sire, speeding wherein he crosseth the mighty, swelling stream that girdleth earth, fleeing the gloom of holy night of sable steeds."
- ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 11.38
- De Astronomica 2.13.1
- ^ Mesomedes, Hymn to the Sun 2
- ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 27
- ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.298
- ^ Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 4.92–93
- ^ Bell, s. v. Eos
- ^ a b Keightley, pp. 53–54.
- ^ a b Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 11.39
- ^ Kirk, Raven & Schofield 1983, pp. 12–13: [F]or him does his lovely bed bear across the wave, [...] from the dwelling of the Hesperides to the land of the Aithiopes where his swift chariot and his horses stand till early-born Dawn shall come; there does the son of Hyperion mount his car."
- ^ Strabo, Geographica 1.2.27, translation by H.C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M.A., Ed.
- ^ Palladas 301
- ^ Penglase 1994, p. 195.
- ^ Homer, Iliad 18.239–240
- ^ Philostratus of Lemnos, Imagines 1.7.2
- ^ Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis 181–182
- ^ Powell Barry, p. 182
- ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods Aphrodite and Eros
- ^ Fairbanks, p. 39
- Argonautica Orphica 113.
- ^ Stuttard 2016, p. 114.
- ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods Hermes and the Sun
- ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.2.4
- ^ Matthews, p. 52
- ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.5.10
- ^ Noted in Kerenyi 1951:191, note 595.
- ^ a b Cohen, pp 206-208
- ^ a b Beaulieu, pp 43–44
- ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Epitome 2.11
- ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Epitome 2.12 ; Hansen, p. 80
- ^ John Tzetzes, Chiliades 1.18
- ^ Sophocles frag 738 [=Achilles Tatius, Introduction to Aratus 1].
- ^ Plato, The Statesman 268e and 269a
- ^ Glover, Eric. "The eclipse of Xerxes in Herodotus 7.37: Lux a non obscurando." The Classical Quarterly, vol. 64, no. 2, 2014, pp. 471–492. New Series. Accessed 12 Sept. 2021.
- ^ Archilochus frag 122; Rutherford, p. 193
- ^ Ian Rutherford, Pindar's Paeans: A reading of the fragments with a survey of the genre.
- ^ Rutherford, p. 191
- ^ Plutarch, Moralia On the Apparent Face in the Orb of the Moon
- ^ Guillermier and Koutchmy, p. 88
- ^ Slim, Hédi. "La chute de Phaeton sur une mosaïque de Barrarus-Rougga en Tunisie". In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. 147e année, N. 3, 2003. p. 1121. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/crai.2003.22628; www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_2003_num_147_3_22628
- ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 183
- ^ Dain, Philippe. Mythographe du Vatican III. Traduction et commentaire. Besançon: Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l'Antiquité, 2005. p. 156 (footnote nr. 33) (Collection "ISTA", 854). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ista.2005.2854; www.persee.fr/doc/ista_0000-0000_2005_edc_854_1
- ^ Athenaeus, Scholars at Dinner 7.294C
- ^ a b c Pindar, Olympian Odes 7
- ^ Library of History 5.56.3
- ^ Scholia on Pindar's Olympian Odes 7.25
- ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 1.4.5
- ^ Conon, Narrations 47
- ^ Pindar, Olympian Odes 7.39
- ^ a b Rhodes in Ancient Times, p. 74
- Hyginus, Fabulae 152A
- ^ a b Scholia on Homer, Odyssey 17.208 Archived 2021-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ John Tzetzes, Chiliades 4.127
- ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 154
- ^ Gantz, pp 31–32 Archived 2023-09-24 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Diggle, pp 7–8
- ^ Cod. Claromont. - Pap. Berl. 9771, Euripides fragment 773 Nauck
- ^ a b Diggle p. 138
- ^ Longinus, On the Sublime 15.4, with a translation by H. L. Havell.
- ^ Diggle, pp 42–43
- ^ a b c Euripides, Phaethon fr. 781 Collard and Cropp = fr. 781 N2.
- ^ a b Collard and Cropp, p. 202
- ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.747–2.400
- ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.142–435
- ^ Gantz, p. 33
- ^ Bell, s. v. Phaethon
- ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica 5.300, "The Daughters of the Sun, the Lord of Omens, shed (tears) for Phaethon slain, when by Eridanos' flood they mourned for him. These, for undying honour to his son, the god made amber, precious in men's eyes."
- ^ Keightley, p. 58, especially note a
- ^ Decharme, pp 240–241
- ^ Hunt 2016, p. 234.
- Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.42.2
- ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods Zeus and the Sun
- .
- ^ Foley, p. 6
- ^ Penglase 1994, p. 124.
- ^ See γαμβρός.
- ^ Ovid, Fasti 4.575
- ^ ISBN 1-57863-284-6.
- ^ Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 90
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 8. 266–295
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 8. 296–332
- ^ Lucian, Gallus 3
- Ausonius, 26.2.27
- ^ Libanius, Progymnasmata 2.26
- ^ a b Pausanias, Description of Greece 5.25.9
- ^ a b Seneca, Phaedra 124
- ^ Scholia on Euripides' Hippolytus 47
- ^ Libanius, Progymnasmata 2.21
- ^ a b c Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.167–273; Lactantius Placidus, Argumenta 4.5; Paradoxographers anonymous, p. 222
- ^ Hard, p. 45; Gantz, p. 34; Berens, p. 63; Grimal, s. v. Clytia
- ^ Edith Hamilton, Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes pg 275
- ^ a b Κακριδής et al. 1986, p. 228.
- ^ The American Journal of Philology 89, no. 1 (1968): pp 20–38.
- ^ Seaton, p. 42, p. 120
- ^ Flora of North America: Common sunflower, United States Department of Agriculture, Helianthus annuus L.
- ^ Sophocles, Ajax 845-860
- ^ a b Diodorus Siculus, Historic Library 5.71.3
- ^ Fr. *4 Serv. in Aen. 6.580 (de Titanomachia; II 81.12–13 Thilo et Hagen) [= *4 GEF]
- ^ Titanomachy fragments 4.GEF, 11.EGEF and 12.EGEF in Tsagalis, p. 47
- ^ a b c Madigan, pp 48–49
- ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 1.6.1
- ^ Scholia on Pindar, Isthmian Odes 6.47b
- ^ Gantz, pp. 419, 448–449
- ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library 1.6.1; Hansen, p. 178; Gantz, 449
- ^ Aeschylus, Eumenides 294; Euripides, Heracles Gone Mad 1192–1194; Ion 987–997; Aristophanes, The Birds 824; Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 3.232–234 (pp. 210–211), 3.1225–7 (pp. 276–277). See also Hesiod fragment 43a.65 MW (Most 2007, p. 143, Gantz, p. 446)
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.220–234
- ^ Eustathius, Ad Odysseam 10.305; translation by Zucker and Le Feuvre p. 324: "Alexander of Paphos reports the following tale: Picoloos, one of the Giants, by fleeing from the war led against Zeus, reached Circe's island and tried to chase her away. Her father Helios killed him, protecting his daughter with his shield; from the blood which flowed on the earth a plant was born, and it was called μῶλυ because of the μῶλος or the battle in which the Giant aforementioned was killed."
- ^ The Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius: Book III, p. 89 note 845
- ^ Le Comte, p. 75
- ^ Knight, p. 180
- ^ Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Book 4
- ^ Chrystal, p. 101
- ^ Rahner, Hugo. Greek Myths and Christian Mystery New York. Biblo & Tannen Publishers. 1971. pg. 204
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 10.302–306
- ^ Picón and Hemingway, p. 47
- ^ LIMC 617 (Helios).
- ^ Faita, pp 202–203
- ^ Now housed in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and can be seen here.
- ^ a b Fowler 1988, p. 98 n. 5; Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.1.6, 2.4.6.
- ^ Dio Chrysostom, Discourses 37.11–12
- ^ Aelian, On Animals 14.28
- ^ Sanders et al. 2013, p. 86.
- ^ Aesop, Fables 183
- ISBN 9781412827737. Retrieved 2014-02-09.
- ^ a b c d e f Rea, Katherine A., The Neglected Heavens: Gender and the Cults of Helios, Selene, and Eos in Bronze Age and Historical Greece, (2014). Classics: Student Scholarship & Creative Works. Augustana College, PDF.
- ^ John Peter Anton and George L. Kustas, Essays in Ancient Greek Philosophy II, p. 236
- ^ Decharme, pp 241–242
- ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 2.178–86
- ^ Scholia on Homer's Odyssey 12.69
- ^ Pseudo-Oppian, Cynegetica 2.615
- ^ Fowler, p. 222, vol. II; Gantz, pp 352–353.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 1.12
- ^ Mastronarde 2017, p. 150.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 1.12–13
- Hyginus, Fabulae 205
- ^ Alexander Stuart Murray and William H. Klapp, Handbook of World Mythology, p. 288
- Servius Commentary on Virgil's Eclogues 10.18
- ^ Chris Rorres, Archimedes' count of Homer's Cattle of the Sun, 2008, Drexel University, chapter 3
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 12.127–135
- Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes 383
- ^ Kimberley Christine Patton, Religion of the Gods: Ritual, Paradox, and Reflexivity p. 393
- ^ Theocritus, Idylls 28 Heracles the Lion-Slayer 28.129-130
- ^ Theocritus, Idylls 28 Heracles the Lion-Slayer 28.118–121
- Homeric Hymn 3 to Apollo 410–414
- ^ Conon, Narrations 40.
- ^ a b Herodotus, Histories 9.93 –94
- ^ Ustinova 2009, p. 170.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 12.127–137.
- ^ Loney, p. 92
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 12.352–388
- ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Epitome 7.22
- ^ W. Walter Merry, James Riddell, D. B. Monro, Commentary on the Odyssey, 12.132
- ^ Loney, p. 91
- ^ Eustathius ad Homer's Odysseam 12.481
- ^ a b H. J. Rose, p. 25
- ^ Robert Mayhew, Aristotle on Helios' 'Omniscience' in Iliad 3 and Odyssey 12: On Schol. B* Iliad 3.277
- ^ a b Loney, p. 90, also note 22
- ^ Phocylidea 68
- ^ Lucian, Icaromenippus 20; Lucian is parodying here Anaxagoras' theory that the sun was a piece of blazing metal.
- ^ Lucian, Icaromenippus 28
- Samosata, A True Story p. 23
- ^ Georgiadou & Larmour 1998, pp 100–101.
- ^ Casson 1962, p. 18.
- ^ Hard, p. 46, another Greek word for the Moon.
- ^ Caldwell, p. 41, note on lines 207–210
- ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods Aphrodite and Eros I
- ^ Seneca, Phaedra 309–314
- ^ Claudian, Rape of Persephone Book II
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.11.5
- ^ Ugarit-Forschungen, Volume 31, Verlag Butzon & Bercker, 2000, p. 20
- ^ Detienne & Vernant 1989, p. 44.
- ^ Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus 865–8871
- ^ Athenaeus, Scholars at Dinner 11.38; "Now the Sun, begotten of Hyperion, was descending into his golden cup, that he might traverse the Ocean and come to the depths of dark and awful night, even to his mother and wedded wife and beloved children."
- Homeric Hymn 3 363-369
- ^ Aelian, On Animals 10.26
- ^ Stoneman, p. 28
- ^ Hecataeus of Miletus, fr. 35A Fowler (p. 141); Hard, p. 44.
- ^ Bell, s. v. Perse
- ^ Bell, s. v. Antiope
- ^ Scholia on Pindar's Olympian Odes 13.74
- ^ Tzetzes ad Lycophron, Alexandra 174
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.309–313
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.597–600
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4.220–221
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 3.1229
- ^ Philostratus, Imagines 11
- ^ Seneca, Medea 570
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4.228–230
- ^ Euripides, Medea 956
- ^ Euripides, Medea 1322
- ^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.9.28
- ^ Seneca, Medea 32–41
- ^ Boyle, p. 98
- ^ Collier and Machemer, p. 112
- ^ Fowler 2013, pp. 14, 591–592; Hard, pp. 43, 105; Grimal, p. 404 "Rhode", pp. 404–405 "Rhodus"; Smith, "Rhode" , "Rhodos"; Pindar, Olympian Odes 7.71–74; Diodorus Siculus, 5.55
- ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.130
- ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.110-141, with a translation by William Henry Denham Rouse.
- ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.142-217
- Greek anthology Macedonius the Consul 5.223
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 5.1.9
- ^ Keightley, p. 61
- ^ Strabo, Geographica 10.3.19.
- ^ Daughter of Poseidon and Aphrodite or Amphitrite.
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, Historic Library 5.56.3; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 14.44
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica3.242
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.35.5 with a reference to Antimachus.
- ^ Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. Αἴγλης Χάριτες
- ^ Otherwise called daughters of Eurynome with Zeus (Hesiod Theogony 907) or of Aphrodite with Dionysus (Anacreontea fragment 38).
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica3.242
- ^ Suidas (21 December 2000). "Tritopatores". Suda. Translated by David Whitehead. Suda On Line. Retrieved December 10, 2023.
- ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica s.v. Bisaltia
- Hyginus, Fabulae 154
- ^ Hecateus fragment 378
- ^ Grimal s. v. Achelous
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica1.172
- ^ a b Tzetzes, Chiliades 4.361
- Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1.172
- ^ Natalis Comes, Mythologiae 3.1; Smith s.v. Acheron
- Eridanus.
- ^ In Suidas "Aithon", he chopped Demeter's sacred grove and was forever famished for that (compare the myth of Erysichthon).
- Hydaspes in India, mother of Deriades.
- Hyginus De Astronomica 2.13, a nymph with a beautiful body and a horrible face.
- ^ In Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.1.1, ruler over Asopia.
- , a city in Rhodes.
- ^ John Tzetzes, Chiliades 4.363
- ^ Lycophron, Alexandra 128 (pp. 504, 505).
- ^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers 25
- ^ Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. Νέαιρα
- Argonautica Orphica 1217
- ^ Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica s.v. Ambrakia
- 12.128).
- ^ In Ovid's Metamorphoses 2.340, these two are listed among the children of Clymene.
- ^ John Tzetzes on Lycophron, 886
- ^ Scholia on Pindar, Pythian Odes 4.57, in which she is also described as "sister to Pasiphaë", perhaps implying they also share a mother as well, either Perse or Crete.
- ^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers 5.1
- ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 26.351, Nonnus calls her a Naiad, but says that her father is Oceanus.
- ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 26.351, contradicting his previous statement that has Clymene as Astris' mother.
- ^ Mesomedes, Hymn to the Sun 1. Eos, much like her sister Selene, is usually said to be Helios' sister instead in various other sources, rather than his daughter.
- Patriarch Photius in Myriobiblon 190. Usually Helen is the daughter of Leda by Zeus; in some versions her mother is Nemesis, again by Zeus.
- is the mother of Thersanon according to Hyginus.
- ^ Euripides, The Phoenician Women 175 ff.; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 44.191. Just like her sister Eos, she's more commonly said to be Helios' sister rather than his daughter.
- is the mother of Thersanon according to Hyginus.
- ^ Pindar, O.2.32; Scholia on Pindar's Olympian Odes 2.58; more often the daughter of Nyx and Erebus.
- ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, Fall of Troy 10.337
- ^ More commonly known as daughters of Zeus by Themis.
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 4.60.4
- ^ Bell, s. v. Dirce (1)
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, Historic Library 4.45.1
- ^ Beck, p. 59
- ^ Scholia on Pindar's Odes I.5.3; "The Sun came from Theia and Hyperion, and from the Sun came gold". Pindar himself described Chrysus/Gold as a son of Zeus.
- ^ Palaephatus, On Unbelievable Things 30
- ^ Meisner, p. 31
- ^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers 3.3. Pseudo-Plutarch attributes this story to Clitophon the Rhodian's Indica, perhaps recording an Indian tale using the names of the Greek gods.
- ^ Farnell, L.R. (1909) The Cults of the Greek States (New York/London: Oxford University Press) vol. v, p 419f.
- ^ J. Burnet, Plato: Euthyphro, Apology of Socrates, and Crito (New York/London: Oxford University Press) 1924, p. 111.
- ^ James A. Noutopolos, "Socrates and the Sun" The Classical Journal 37.5 (February 1942), pp. 260–274.
- ^ Notopoulos 1942:265.
- ^ a b Ogden, p. 205
- ^ Notopoulos 1942 instances Aeschylus' Agamemnon 508, Choephoroe 993, Suppliants 213, and Sophocles' Oedipus Rex 660 and 1425.
- ^ Anaxagoras biography
- ^ Ogden, p. 200
- ^ a b c Hoffmann, Herbert. "Helios." Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 2 (1963): 117–24.
- ^ Scholia ad Sophocli Oedipus at Colonus 91; Xenis p. 72
- ^ Robert E. Meagher, p. 142
- ^ Athenaeus, Scholars at Dinner 25.48
- ^ Ogden, p. 200 [=FGrH 366 fr. 3].
- ^ Farnell, p. 19, 143. vol. IV
- ^ Parker, p. 417
- ^ a b Harrison, p. 79; a scholiast says "At the Pyanepsia and the Thargelia the Athenians hold a feast to Helios and the Horae, and the boys carry about branches twined with wool,"
- ^ a b Parker, p. 203, note 52: "Deubner [...] and Σ. vet. Ar. Plut. 1054c treat the Thargelia (and Pyanopsia) as festivals of the Sun and Seasons. Once could on that basis equally well link the Sun and Seasons processions with Pyanopsia, but it is neater to identify it with the attested Thargelia procession and leave the Pyanopsia free for the boys' roamings with the eiresione."
- ^ a b Parker, p. 204
- ^ Gardner and Jevons, p. 294
- ^ Konaris 2016, p. 225.
- ^ Lupu, p. 64
- ^ Miles, p. 112
- ^ Mnemosyne at the Asklepieia, Stephen P. Ahearne-Kroll, Classical Philology, Vol. 109, No. 2 (April 2014), pp. 99-118; The University of Chicago Press.
- ^ CGRN File 54
- ^ Bekker, p. 215, vol. I
- ^ Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. ὀρθοστάτης
- ^ Julius Pollux 6.74
- ^ Porphyry, On Abstinence from Animal Food 2.7
- ^ a b Allaire Brumfield, Cakes in the Liknon: Votives from the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore on Acrocorinth, Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens Vol. 66, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1997), pp. 147-172, The American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
- ^ Patriarch Photius s. v. Φθόις
- ^ Ovid, Fasti 1.385–386
- ^ Plato, The Republic 7.517b–7.517c
- ^ Martin, p. 302; Olderr, p. 98; Barnhart (1995:778).
- ^ Philochorus 181; Müller, s. v. Sol, Hyperionis
- ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary s.v. Helios, "But it was not until the later Roman empire that Helios/*Sol grew into a figure of central importance in actual cult."
- ^ Burkert, p. 174
- ^ a b Larson, Jennifer. "A Land Full of Gods: Nature Deities in Greek Religion". In Ogden, Daniel. A Companion to Greek Religion. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, 56–70.
- ^ a b Larson 2007, p. 158
- ^ Nilsson 1950, p. 355.
- ^ Farnell, p. 418, vol. V
- ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 13.12
- ^ Parker, p. 138
- ^ Farnell, p. 20, vol. IV
- ^ Gardner and Jevons, p. 247
- ^ a b Rhodes in Ancient Times, p. 73
- ^ Harrison, Jane E. "Helios-Hades." The Classical Review, vol. 22, no. 1, Classical Association, Cambridge University Press, 1908, pp. 12–16
- ^ Xenophon of Ephesus, Ephesian Tale pp. 107-108; Dillon 2002, p. 216
- ^ Suda, alpha, 1155
- ^ Hemingway, p. 36
- ^ Strabo, Geography 14.2.5
- ISBN 9780415050364.
- ^ a b Ekroth, p. 210
- ^ Malkin, p. 245
- ^ Larson 2001, p. 207
- ^ Rhodes in Ancient Times, p. 83
- ^ Suda, alpha, 1155
- ^ a b Ogden, p. 204
- ^ a b c d e f Farnell, p. 419, vol. V
- ^ Harrison 1991, p. 609.
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.11.1
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.20.4
- ^ Nagy, p. 100 n. 70
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.26.1
- ^ Euripides, Robert E. Meagher, Helen, Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1986
- ^ The Classical Review, p. 77, vol. 7
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.18.3
- ^ a b Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.31.5
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.34.10
- ^ Vermaseren, p. 150; CIG Pel. I = IG IV, 12, 700.
- ^ Vermaseren, p. 149
- ^ Farnell, p. 420, Vol. V; Pausanias, Description of Greece 8.9.4
- ^ a b Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks 1951:110.
- ^ a b Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. Τάλως
- ^ Farnell, note 40, vol. V
- ^ Farnell, p. 138, vol. IV
- ^ Fontenrose 1988, p. 115.
- ^ Conon, Narrations 33
- ^ Fontenrose 1988, p. 113.
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 10.11.5
- ^ a b c d Miller, pp 33–35
- ^ Plato, Laws 12.946b-e
- ^ Roisman and Worthington, p. 271
- ^ British Museum Catalogue 'Caria'. pp 106-107
- ^ British Museum Catalogue 'Sicily'. p 229
- ^ British Museum Catalogue 'Peloponnese'. p 101
- ^ Farnell, note 44, vol. V
- ^ Patton, p. 410
- ^ Ridgeway, p. 55
- ^ a b c Farnell, pp 419-420, vol. V
- ^ Ekroth, p. 315
- ^ Nawotka, p. 109
- ^ Toorn et al., s.v. Helios p. 396
- ^ Warrior, p. 10
- ^ a b Lalonde, p. 83
- ^ Mikalson, p. 84
- ^ Fletcher, p. 186
- ^ Fletcher, pp 116 and 186
- ^ Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 88–94
- ^ Smith Helaine, p. 42
- ^ van der Toorn et al, s.v. Helios, p. 396
- ^ Toorn et al, s.v. Helios p. 397
- ^ a b Sommerstein, Bayliss, p. 162
- ^ Gardner and Jevons, p. 232; A treaty between Smyrna and Magnesia-by-Sipylos OGIS: 229
- ^ Ogden 2001, p. 211
- ^ a b Faraone and Obbink, p. 35
- ^ a b Faraone and Obbink, p. 46
- ^ Collins, p. 128
- ^ HALUSZKA, ADRIA. "SACRED SIGNIFIED: THE SEMIOTICS OF STATUES IN THE 'GREEK MAGICAL PAPYRI.'" Arethusa, vol. 41, no. 3, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008, pp. 479–94
- ^ Faraone, p. 139
- ^ Faraone, p. 141
- ^ Faraone, p. 105
- ^ Scholia on Theocritus' Idylls 2 the Spell
- ^ Plutarch, On Isis and Osiris 52
- revealed her dream to the Sun-god."
- ^ Euripides, Iphigenia Among the Taurians 42–45: But the strange visions which the night brought with it, I will tell to the air, if that is any relief. I dreamed that I had left this land to live in Argos,
- ^ Cropp, p.176
- ^ Juliette Harrison, Dreams and Dreaming in the Roman Empire: Cultural Memory and Imagination p. 114
- ^ Thonemann, p. 146
- ^ Thonemann, p. 151
- ^ Wilhelm Fauth, Helios Megistos: zur synkretistischen Theologie der Spätantike (Leiden:Brill) 1995.
- ^ Pachoumi, Eleni, "The Religious and Philosophical Assimilations of Helios in the Greek Magical Papyri", in Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, vol. 55, pp. 391–413. PDF.
- ISBN 978-1-90221058-2.
- ISBN 978-0-19860012-1.
- ^ Hijmans 2009, pp. 567–578.
- ^ On the Mysteries of the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Assyrians 7.2, 251–252.
- ^ (Myst. 5.23, 233)
- ^ Roscher, p. 927
- A Greek-English Lexicon s.v. ἐλάσιππος
- ^ Homer, Iliad 19.398
- ^ Usener, p. 261
- A Greek-English Lexicon s.v. ὡροτρόφος
- ^ Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. ὑπερίων
- ^ Versnel, p. 119, especially note 93.
- LSJ
- ^ a b Walton, p. 34
- ^ Orphic Hymn 8 to the Sun 16
- ^ Archilochus 61.3; Scholia on Euripides' Hecuba 1103
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 8.31.7
- ^ See τιτώ and Τιτάν in LSJ
- ^ Walter Burkert, Greek Religion, p. 120.
- ^ Homer, William Cullen Bryant (1809). The Iliad of Homer. Ashmead.
- ^ G. Lancellotti, Attis, Between Myth and History: King, Priest, and God, BRILL, 2002
- ^ Guthrie, p. 43, says "The Orphics never had the power to bring it about, but it was their purpose to foster it, and in their syncretistic literature they identified the two gods [i.e. Apollo and Dionysus] by giving out that both alike were Helios, the Sun. Helios = supreme god = Dionysus = Apollo (cp. Kern, Orpheus, 7). So at least the later writers say. Olympiodoros (O.F. 212) speaks of 'Helios, who according to Orpheus has much in common with Dionysos through the medium of Apollo', and according to Proklos (O.F. 172) 'Orpheus makes Helios very much the same as Apollo, and worship the fellowship of these gods'. Helios and Dionysos are identified in Orphic lines (O.F. 236, 239)."
- ^ Strabo, Geographica 14.1.6
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 7.23.8
- ^ a b Mayerson, p. 146
- ^ Alexander Stuart Murray and William H. Klapp, Handbook of World Mythology pg 104
- ^ a b Orphic Hymn 8 to the Sun 9–15 (Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 11).
- ^ Orphic Hymn 34 to Apollo 3 and 8 (Athanassakis and Wolkow, pp 30–31).
- ^ Athenaeus, Scholars at Dinner 14.10
- ^ a b Farnell, p. 137, vol. IV
- ^ Scythinus fragment here in Plutarch's De Pythiae Oraculis 16.402a
- ^ Scholia on the Iliad 20.67 ; Hansen, p. 10
- ^ Anecdota græca e codd. manuscriptis Bibliothecæ regiæ parisiensis, p. 120
- Seven Against Thebes 855–858
- ^ Hesiod, Theogony 760
- ^ Smith, s. v. Apollo.
- ISBN 978-0-520-07293-0.
- ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.367
- ^ Virgil, Aeneid 4.6
- ^ Statius, Thebaid 8.271
- ^ Seneca, Hercules Furens 25
- ^ a b c d Fontenrose, Joseph E. "Apollo and the Sun-God in Ovid." The American Journal of Philology 61, no. 4 (1940): 429–44.
- ^ Larissa Bonfante and Judith Swaddling, Etruscan Myths (Series The Legendary Past, British Museum/University of Texas) 2006:77.
- S2CID 163737209.
- ^ de Grummond, Nancy Thomson; Simon, Erika (2009-04-20). The Religion of the Etruscans. University of Texas Press.
- ^ Fischer-Hansen and Poulsen, p. 281
- ^ "Aleion." Suda On Line. Trans. Jennifer Benedict on 17 April 2000.
- ^ Lalonde, p. 82
- ^ Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae Why do they believe that the year belongs to Jupiter, but the months to Juno?
- ^ Euripides, Medea 1258; The Play of Texts and Fragments: Essays in Honour of Martin Cropp by J. Robert C. Cousland, James, 2009, p. 161
- ^ Cook, p. 196
- JSTOR 3270454
- ^ Bortolani, Ljuba Merlina (2016-10-13) Magical Hymns from Roman Egypt: A study of Greek and Egyptian traditions of divinity, Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Cook, pp 186–187
- ^ a b Cook, pp 188–189
- ^ Hart 2005, p. 140.
- ^ Cook, p. 190
- ^ Cook, p. 193
- ^ Cook, p. 194
- ^ Manoledakis, Manolis. "A Proposal Relating to a Votive Inscription to Zeus Helios from Pontus." Zeitschrift Für Papyrologie Und Epigraphik 173 (2010): 116–18.
- ^ Squarciapino, p. 35
- ^ Elmaghrabi, Mohamed G. "A Dedication to Zeus Helios Megas Sarapis on a 'Gazophylakion' from Alexandria." Zeitschrift Für Papyrologie Und Epigraphik 200 (2016): 219–28.
- ^ Julian, Hymn to King Helios
- ^ Emperor Julian, Against the Galileans 200a
- ^ Lecerf, p. 184
- ^ Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," pp. 101ff
- ^ Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," pp. 106.
- ^ Kerenyi, pp. 196–197
- ^ Frede and Laks, p. 200
- ^ Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," pp. 106, 109.
- ^ Thompson, "ISmyrna 753," pp. 111.
- ^ Nilsson 1906, p. 428
- ^ Inman, p. 29
- ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.18.19; Dillon, p. 343
- ^ "epiphanestaton" – "most conspicuous" noted in Diodorus Siculus II. 30. 3–4. See also Franz Boll (1919) Kronos-Helios, Archiv für Religionswissenschaft XIX, p. 344.
- ^ Platt, p .387
- ^ a b c Kraemer, p. 165
- ^ Collignon, p. 178
- ^ Classical Manual, p. 572
- ^ Savignoni, p. 270
- ^ Paipetis, p. 365
- ^ Paipetis, p. 357
- ^ Savignoni, p. 267
- ^ Walters, p. 78
- ^ See the vase here.
- ^ Neils, pp 236–237
- ^ Palagia, pp 18–19
- ^ Robertson, Martin 1981, p. 96
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 5.11.8
- ^ Robertson 1992, p. 255
- ^ Morris, p. 87
- ^ The Nineteenth Century Vol. 17, p. 671
- ^ Mitchell, p. 92
- ^ Roberts, p. 215
- ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History 34.19
- ^ de Grummond, p. 96
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 6.24.6
- ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 2.3.2
- ^ The Alexander Romance in Persia and Greece, p. 392
- ^ Riggs, p. 449
- ^ British Museum, A Guide to the Principal Coins of the Greeks 60, no. 24, pl. 34
- ^ C. Vermeule and D. von Bothmer, "Notes on a New Edition of Michaelis: Ancient Marbles in Great Britain." American Journal of Archaeology vol. 63, no. 2 (1959): p. 146
- ^ a b c d e Steinberg, p. 144
- ^ Long, p. 314
- ^ Long, p. 316
- ^ Toorn et al, s.v. Helios p. 398-399
- ^ Kraemer, p. 158
- ^ a b c Ḥaḵlîlî, pp 195-196
- ^ Dunbabin, pp 191-192
- ^ a b Bull, p. 330
- ^ Bull, p. 352
- ^ a b Impelluso, p. 23
- ^ a b c Hall, p. 27
- ^ Hall, p. 66
- ^ Cosgrove, p. 168
- ^ Gray Collection: Pure Drawing, p. 24
- ^ Essay on Aurora fresco, by Shannon Pritchard.
- ^ Impelluso, p. 24
- ^ Hall, p. 252
- ^ Seydle, p. 33
- ^ a b Powell, pp 236–237
- ^ Jean-Baptiste Lully, Phaëton
- ^ Parvopassu, pp 1015–1016 (in Italian).
- ^ Harris-Warrick, p. 70
- ^ Miller and Newlands, p. 377
- ^ Powell, p. 266
- ^ Helios und Phaethon.
- ^ Ulysses Guide: 14. Oxen of the Sun
- ^ "Helios". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on March 27, 2020.
- ^ "heliac". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ Harper, Douglas. "helium". Online Etymology Dictionary.
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Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call Helium
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- ^ NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive and NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive Note that there is no "Epoch end" date given, which is NASA's way of saying it is still in orbit.
- ISBN 978-1-845-33620-2; Hugh Johnson, Hugh Johnson's Pocket Wine Book, p. 127, 2017
- ^ "Elysia - Destroy Leviathan Seed - Metroid Prime 3: Corruption Wiki Guide". IGN. 29 March 2012. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
- ^ "Deus Ex Walkthrough Ending 2 - Merge with Helios AI". Port Forward. 15 September 2021. Retrieved 2023-03-15.
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- ^ "The Odyssey – Gareth Hinds Illustration". Retrieved 2023-03-05.
- ^ "The Burning Maze | Rick Riordan". 2017-05-15. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
- ^ "God of War – Every Boss Fight in the Series, Ranked". GamingBolt. Retrieved 2023-03-05.
- ^ Hesiod, Theogony 132–138, 337–411, 453–520, 901–906, 915–920; Caldwell, pp. 8–11, tables 11–14.
- ^ Although usually the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, as in Hesiod, Theogony 371–374, in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes (4), 99–100, Selene is instead made the daughter of Pallas the son of Megamedes.
- ^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 507–511, Clymene, one of the Oceanids, the daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, at Hesiod, Theogony 351, was the mother by Iapetus of Atlas, Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus, while according to Apollodorus, 1.2.3, another Oceanid, Asia was their mother by Iapetus.
- Cleito.
- ^ In Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 18, 211, 873 (Sommerstein, pp. 444–445 n. 2, 446–447 n. 24, 538–539 n. 113) Prometheus is made to be the son of Themis.
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Further reading
- ISBN 978-0-87099-179-0; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries.
- The translation and reconstruction of Euripides' "Phaethon" made by Vlanes is now available as ebook on Amazon.