Quark
gravitation | |
Symbol | q |
---|---|
Antiparticle | antiquark ( q ) |
Theorized |
|
Discovered | ħ |
Baryon number | 1/3 |
A quark (
Quarks have various
There are six types, known as
The quark model was independently proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964.[5] Quarks were introduced as parts of an ordering scheme for hadrons, and there was little evidence for their physical existence until deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968.[6][7] Accelerator program experiments have provided evidence for all six flavors. The top quark, first observed at Fermilab in 1995, was the last to be discovered.[5]
Classification
The
Quarks are
The quarks that determine the quantum numbers of hadrons are called valence quarks; apart from these, any hadron may contain an indefinite number of virtual "sea" quarks, antiquarks, and gluons, which do not influence its quantum numbers.[10] There are two families of hadrons: baryons, with three valence quarks, and mesons, with a valence quark and an antiquark.[11] The most common baryons are the proton and the neutron, the building blocks of the atomic nucleus.[12] A great number of hadrons are known (see list of baryons and list of mesons), most of them differentiated by their quark content and the properties these constituent quarks confer. The existence of "exotic" hadrons with more valence quarks, such as tetraquarks (
q
q
q
q
) and pentaquarks (
q
q
q
q
q
), was conjectured from the beginnings of the quark model[13] but not discovered until the early 21st century.[14][15][16][17]
Elementary fermions are grouped into three generations, each comprising two leptons and two quarks. The first generation includes up and down quarks, the second strange and charm quarks, and the third bottom and top quarks. All searches for a fourth generation of quarks and other elementary fermions have failed,[18][19] and there is strong indirect evidence that no more than three generations exist.[nb 2][20][21][22] Particles in higher generations generally have greater mass and less stability, causing them to decay into lower-generation particles by means of weak interactions. Only first-generation (up and down) quarks occur commonly in nature. Heavier quarks can only be created in high-energy collisions (such as in those involving cosmic rays), and decay quickly; however, they are thought to have been present during the first fractions of a second after the Big Bang, when the universe was in an extremely hot and dense phase (the quark epoch). Studies of heavier quarks are conducted in artificially created conditions, such as in particle accelerators.[23]
Having electric charge, mass, color charge, and flavor, quarks are the only known elementary particles that engage in all four
See the table of properties below for a more complete overview of the six quark flavors' properties.
History
The
At the time of the quark theory's inception, the "particle zoo" included a multitude of hadrons, among other particles. Gell-Mann and Zweig posited that they were not elementary particles, but were instead composed of combinations of quarks and antiquarks. Their model involved three flavors of quarks, up, down, and strange, to which they ascribed properties such as spin and electric charge.[24][25][26] The initial reaction of the physics community to the proposal was mixed. There was particular contention about whether the quark was a physical entity or a mere abstraction used to explain concepts that were not fully understood at the time.[30]
In less than a year, extensions to the Gell-Mann–Zweig model were proposed. Sheldon Glashow and James Bjorken predicted the existence of a fourth flavor of quark, which they called charm. The addition was proposed because it allowed for a better description of the weak interaction (the mechanism that allows quarks to decay), equalized the number of known quarks with the number of known leptons, and implied a mass formula that correctly reproduced the masses of the known mesons.[31]
The strange quark's existence was indirectly validated by SLAC's scattering experiments: not only was it a necessary component of Gell-Mann and Zweig's three-quark model, but it provided an explanation for the kaon (
K
) and pion (
π
) hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947.[37]
In a 1970 paper, Glashow,
Charm quarks were produced almost simultaneously by two teams in November 1974 (see
J/ψ
meson. The discovery finally convinced the physics community of the quark model's validity.[35]
In the following years a number of suggestions appeared for extending the quark model to six quarks. Of these, the 1975 paper by Haim Harari[41] was the first to coin the terms top and bottom for the additional quarks.[42]
In 1977, the bottom quark was observed by a team at Fermilab led by Leon Lederman.[43][44] This was a strong indicator of the top quark's existence: without the top quark, the bottom quark would have been without a partner. It was not until 1995 that the top quark was finally observed, also by the CDF[45] and DØ[46] teams at Fermilab.[5] It had a mass much larger than expected,[47] almost as large as that of a gold atom.[48]
Etymology
For some time, Gell-Mann was undecided on an actual spelling for the term he intended to coin, until he found the word quark in James Joyce's 1939 book Finnegans Wake:[49]
– Three quarks for Muster Mark!
Sure he hasn't got much of a bark
And sure any he has it's all beside the mark.
The word quark is an outdated English word meaning to croak Some authors, however, defend a possible German origin of Joyce's word quark.[57] Gell-Mann went into further detail regarding the name of the quark in his 1994 book The Quark and the Jaguar:[58]
In 1963, when I assigned the name "quark" to the fundamental constituents of the nucleon, I had the sound first, without the spelling, which could have been "kwork". Then, in one of my occasional perusals of Finnegans Wake, by James Joyce, I came across the word "quark" in the phrase "Three quarks for Muster Mark". Since "quark" (meaning, for one thing, the cry of the gull) was clearly intended to rhyme with "Mark", as well as "bark" and other such words, I had to find an excuse to pronounce it as "kwork". But the book represents the dream of a publican named Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker. Words in the text are typically drawn from several sources at once, like the "
portmanteau" words in Through the Looking-Glass. From time to time, phrases occur in the book that are partially determined by calls for drinks at the bar. I argued, therefore, that perhaps one of the multiple sources of the cry "Three quarks for Muster Mark" might be "Three quarts for Mister Mark", in which case the pronunciation "kwork" would not be totally unjustified. In any case, the number three fitted perfectly the way quarks occur in nature.
Zweig preferred the name ace for the particle he had theorized, but Gell-Mann's terminology came to prominence once the quark model had been commonly accepted.[59]
The quark flavors were given their names for several reasons. The up and down quarks are named after the up and down components of isospin, which they carry.[60] Strange quarks were given their name because they were discovered to be components of the strange particles discovered in cosmic rays years before the quark model was proposed; these particles were deemed "strange" because they had unusually long lifetimes.[61] Glashow, who co-proposed the charm quark with Bjorken, is quoted as saying, "We called our construct the 'charmed quark', for we were fascinated and pleased by the symmetry it brought to the subnuclear world."[62] The names "bottom" and "top", coined by Harari, were chosen because they are "logical partners for up and down quarks".[41][42][61] Alternative names for bottom and top quarks are "beauty" and "truth" respectively,[nb 4] but these names have somewhat fallen out of use.[66] While "truth" never did catch on, accelerator complexes devoted to massive production of bottom quarks are sometimes called "beauty factories".[67]
Properties
Electric charge
Quarks have
Spin
Spin is an intrinsic property of elementary particles, and its direction is an important degree of freedom. It is sometimes visualized as the rotation of an object around its own axis (hence the name "spin"), though this notion is somewhat misguided at subatomic scales because elementary particles are believed to be point-like.[69]
Spin can be represented by a
Weak interaction
A quark of one flavor can transform into a quark of another flavor only through the weak interaction, one of the four
ν
e) (see picture). This occurs when one of the down quarks in the neutron (
u
d
d
) decays into an up quark by emitting a virtual
W−
boson, transforming the neutron into a proton (
u
u
d
). The
W−
boson then decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino.[72]
n |
→ | p |
+ | e− |
+ | ν e |
(Beta decay, hadron notation) |
u d d |
→ | u u d |
+ | e− |
+ | ν e |
(Beta decay, quark notation) |
Both beta decay and the inverse process of inverse beta decay are routinely used in medical applications such as positron emission tomography (PET) and in experiments involving neutrino detection.
While the process of flavor transformation is the same for all quarks, each quark has a preference to transform into the quark of its own generation. The relative tendencies of all flavor transformations are described by a mathematical table, called the Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix (CKM matrix). Enforcing unitarity, the approximate magnitudes of the entries of the CKM matrix are:[73]
where Vij represents the tendency of a quark of flavor i to change into a quark of flavor j (or vice versa).[nb 5]
There exists an equivalent weak interaction matrix for leptons (right side of the W boson on the above beta decay diagram), called the Pontecorvo–Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata matrix (PMNS matrix).[74] Together, the CKM and PMNS matrices describe all flavor transformations, but the links between the two are not yet clear.[75]
Strong interaction and color charge
According to quantum chromodynamics (QCD), quarks possess a property called color charge. There are three types of color charge, arbitrarily labeled blue, green, and red.[nb 6] Each of them is complemented by an anticolor – antiblue, antigreen, and antired. Every quark carries a color, while every antiquark carries an anticolor.[76]
The system of attraction and repulsion between quarks charged with different combinations of the three colors is called
In modern particle physics,
Mass
Two terms are used in referring to a quark's mass: current quark mass refers to the mass of a quark by itself, while constituent quark mass refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the gluon particle field surrounding the quark.[82] These masses typically have very different values. Most of a hadron's mass comes from the gluons that bind the constituent quarks together, rather than from the quarks themselves. While gluons are inherently massless, they possess energy – more specifically, quantum chromodynamics binding energy (QCBE) – and it is this that contributes so greatly to the overall mass of the hadron (see mass in special relativity). For example, a proton has a mass of approximately 938 MeV/c2, of which the rest mass of its three valence quarks only contributes about 9 MeV/c2; much of the remainder can be attributed to the field energy of the gluons[83][84] (see chiral symmetry breaking). The Standard Model posits that elementary particles derive their masses from the Higgs mechanism, which is associated to the Higgs boson. It is hoped that further research into the reasons for the top quark's large mass of ~173 GeV/c2, almost the mass of a gold atom,[83][85] might reveal more about the origin of the mass of quarks and other elementary particles.[86]
Size
In QCD, quarks are considered to be point-like entities, with zero size. As of 2014, experimental evidence indicates they are no bigger than 10−4 times the size of a proton, i.e. less than 10−19 metres.[87]
Table of properties
The following table summarizes the key properties of the six quarks.
Particle | Mass* (MeV/c2) | J | B | Q (e) | I3 | C | S | T | B′ | Antiparticle | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Name | Symbol | Name | Symbol | |||||||||
First generation | ||||||||||||
up | u |
2.3±0.7 ± 0.5 | 1/2 | +1/3 | +2/3 | +1/2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | antiup | u |
down | d |
4.8±0.5 ± 0.3 | 1/2 | +1/3 | −1/3 | −1/2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | antidown | d |
Second generation | ||||||||||||
charm | c |
1275±25 | 1/2 | +1/3 | +2/3 | 0 | +1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | anticharm | c |
strange | s |
95±5 | 1/2 | +1/3 | −1/3 | 0 | 0 | −1 | 0 | 0 | antistrange | s |
Third generation | ||||||||||||
top | t |
173210±510 ± 710 * | 1/2 | +1/3 | +2/3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | +1 | 0 | antitop | t |
bottom | b |
4180±30 | 1/2 | +1/3 | −1/3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | −1 | antibottom | b |
J =
Interacting quarks
As described by quantum chromodynamics, the strong interaction between quarks is mediated by gluons, massless vector gauge bosons. Each gluon carries one color charge and one anticolor charge. In the standard framework of particle interactions (part of a more general formulation known as perturbation theory), gluons are constantly exchanged between quarks through a virtual emission and absorption process. When a gluon is transferred between quarks, a color change occurs in both; for example, if a red quark emits a red–antigreen gluon, it becomes green, and if a green quark absorbs a red–antigreen gluon, it becomes red. Therefore, while each quark's color constantly changes, their strong interaction is preserved.[88][89][90]
Since gluons carry color charge, they themselves are able to emit and absorb other gluons. This causes
Sea quarks
Hadrons contain, along with the
q
v) that contribute to their quantum numbers, virtual quark–antiquark (
q
q
) pairs known as sea quarks (
q
s). Sea quarks form when a gluon of the hadron's color field splits; this process also works in reverse in that the annihilation of two sea quarks produces a gluon. The result is a constant flux of gluon splits and creations colloquially known as "the sea".[95] Sea quarks are much less stable than their valence counterparts, and they typically annihilate each other within the interior of the hadron. Despite this, sea quarks can hadronize into baryonic or mesonic particles under certain circumstances.[96]
Other phases of quark matter
Under sufficiently extreme conditions, quarks may become "deconfined" out of bound states and propagate as thermalized "free" excitations in the larger medium. In the course of asymptotic freedom, the strong interaction becomes weaker at increasing temperatures. Eventually, color confinement would be effectively lost in an extremely hot plasma of freely moving quarks and gluons. This theoretical phase of matter is called quark–gluon plasma.[99]
The exact conditions needed to give rise to this state are unknown and have been the subject of a great deal of speculation and experimentation. An estimate puts the needed temperature at (1.90±0.02)×1012
The quark–gluon plasma would be characterized by a great increase in the number of heavier quark pairs in relation to the number of up and down quark pairs. It is believed that in the period prior to 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang (the quark epoch), the universe was filled with quark–gluon plasma, as the temperature was too high for hadrons to be stable.[103]
Given sufficiently high baryon densities and relatively low temperatures – possibly comparable to those found in
See also
Explanatory notes
- ^ There is also the theoretical possibility of more exotic phases of quark matter.
- resonance width of the, which constrains the 4th generation neutrino to have a mass greater than ~45 GeV/c2. This would be highly contrasting with the other three generations' neutrinos, whose masses cannot exceed 2 MeV/c2.
Z0
boson - C symmetry).
- ^ The actual probability of decay of one quark to another is a complicated function of (among other variables) the decaying quark's mass, the masses of the decay products, and the corresponding element of the CKM matrix. This probability is directly proportional (but not equal) to the magnitude squared (|Vij |2) of the corresponding CKM entry.
- ^ Despite its name, color charge is not related to the color spectrum of visible light.
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Further reading
- A. Ali; G. Kramer (2011). "JETS and QCD: A Historical Review of the Discovery of the Quark and Gluon Jets and Its Impact on QCD". S2CID 54062126.
- R. Bowley; E. Copeland. "Quarks". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
- ISBN 978-3-527-40601-2.
- ISBN 978-0-521-26092-3.
- ISBN 978-0-13-236678-6.
- ISBN 978-0-226-66799-7.
- ISBN 978-0-387-59439-2.
- ISBN 978-0-671-64884-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-7971-5.
External links
- 1969 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Murray Gell-Mann
- 1976 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Burton Richter
- 1976 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Samuel C.C. Ting
- 2008 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Makoto Kobayashi
- 2008 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Toshihide Maskawa
- The Top Quark And The Higgs Particle by T.A. Heppenheimer – A description of CERN's experiment to count the families of quarks.
- Think Big website, Quarks and Gluons
- Think Big website, Quarks 2019