Quartz
Quartz | |
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References | [6][7][8][9] |
Quartz is a hard,
Quartz exists in two forms, the normal α-quartz and the high-temperature β-quartz, both of which are
There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which are classified as gemstones. Since antiquity, varieties of quartz have been the most commonly used minerals in the making of jewelry and hardstone carvings, especially in Europe and Asia.
Quartz is the
Etymology
The word "quartz" is derived from the German word Quarz,[11] which had the same form in the first half of the 14th century in Middle High German and in East Central German[12] and which came from the Polish dialect term kwardy, which corresponds to the Czech term tvrdý ("hard").[13] Some sources, however, attribute the word's origin to the Saxon word Querkluftertz, meaning cross-vein ore.[14][15]
The
Early studies
Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder believed quartz to be water ice, permanently frozen after great lengths of time.[19] He supported this idea by saying that quartz is found near glaciers in the Alps, but not on volcanic mountains, and that large quartz crystals were fashioned into spheres to cool the hands. This idea persisted until at least the 17th century. He also knew of the ability of quartz to split light into a spectrum.[20]
In the 17th century, Nicolas Steno's study of quartz paved the way for modern crystallography. He discovered that regardless of a quartz crystal's size or shape, its long prism faces always joined at a perfect 60° angle.[21]
Crystal habit and structure
Quartz belongs to the
Well-formed crystals typically form as a druse (a layer of crystals lining a void), of which quartz geodes are particularly fine examples.[24] The crystals are attached at one end to the enclosing rock, and only one termination pyramid is present. However, doubly terminated crystals do occur where they develop freely without attachment, for instance, within gypsum.[25]
α-quartz crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system, space group P3121 or P3221 (space group 152 or 154 resp.) depending on the chirality. Above 573 °C (846 K; 1,063 °F), α-quartz in P3121 becomes the more symmetric hexagonal P6422 (space group 181), and α-quartz in P3221 goes to space group P6222 (no. 180).[26]
These space groups are truly chiral (they each belong to the 11 enantiomorphous pairs). Both α-quartz and β-quartz are examples of chiral crystal structures composed of achiral building blocks (SiO4 tetrahedra in the present case). The transformation between α- and β-quartz only involves a comparatively minor rotation of the tetrahedra with respect to one another, without a change in the way they are linked.[22][27] However, there is a significant change in volume during this transition,[clarification needed] and this can result in significant microfracturing in ceramics[28] and in rocks of the Earth's crust.[29]
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Sceptered quartz
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Sceptered quartz (as aggregates: "Elestial quartz")
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Prismatic quartz with black hematite
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Druse quartz
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Granular quartz
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Twinned quartz
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Massive quartz
Varieties (according to microstructure)
Although many of the varietal names historically arose from the color of the mineral, current scientific naming schemes refer primarily to the microstructure of the mineral. Color is a secondary identifier for the cryptocrystalline minerals, although it is a primary identifier for the macrocrystalline varieties.[30]
Type | Color and description | Transparency |
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Herkimer diamond | Colorless | Transparent |
Rock crystal | Colorless | Transparent |
Amethyst | Purple to violet colored quartz | Transparent |
Citrine | Yellow quartz ranging to reddish-orange or brown (Madera quartz), and occasionally greenish yellow | Transparent |
Ametrine | A mix of amethyst and citrine with hues of purple/violet and yellow or orange/brown | Transparent |
Rose quartz | Pink, may display diasterism | Transparent |
Chalcedony | Fibrous, variously translucent, cryptocrystalline quartz occurring in many varieties. The term is often used for white, cloudy, or lightly colored material intergrown with moganite. Otherwise more specific names are used. |
|
Carnelian | Reddish orange chalcedony | Translucent |
Aventurine | Quartz with tiny aligned inclusions (usually mica) that shimmer with aventurescence | Translucent to opaque |
Agate | Multi-colored, curved or concentric banded chalcedony (cf. Onyx) | Semi-translucent to translucent |
Onyx | Multi-colored, straight banded chalcedony or chert (cf. Agate) | Semi-translucent to opaque |
Jasper | Opaque cryptocrystalline quartz, typically red to brown but often used for other colors | Opaque |
Milky quartz | White, may display diasterism | Translucent to opaque |
Smoky quartz | Light to dark gray, sometimes with a brownish hue | Translucent to opaque |
Tiger's eye | Fibrous gold, red-brown or bluish colored chalcedony, exhibiting chatoyancy. | |
Prasiolite | Green | Transparent |
Rutilated quartz | Contains acicular (needle-like) inclusions of rutile | |
Dumortierite quartz | Contains large amounts of blue dumortierite crystals | Translucent |
Prase | Green | Translucent |
Varieties (according to color)
Pure quartz, traditionally called rock crystal or clear quartz, is colorless and transparent or translucent and has often been used for hardstone carvings, such as the Lothair Crystal. Common colored varieties include citrine, rose quartz, amethyst, smoky quartz, milky quartz, and others.[31] These color differentiations arise from the presence of impurities which change the molecular orbitals, causing some electronic transitions to take place in the visible spectrum causing colors.
The most important distinction between types of quartz is that of macrocrystalline (individual crystals visible to the unaided eye) and the
Amethyst
Amethyst is a form of quartz that ranges from a bright vivid violet to a dark or dull lavender shade. The world's largest deposits of amethysts can be found in Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, Russia, France, Namibia, and Morocco. Sometimes amethyst and citrine are found growing in the same crystal. It is then referred to as ametrine. Amethyst derives its color from traces of iron in its structure.[33]
Blue quartz
Blue quartz contains inclusions of fibrous
Dumortierite quartz
Inclusions of the mineral
Citrine
Citrine is a variety of quartz whose color ranges from pale yellow to brown due to a submicroscopic distribution of colloidal
Citrine was first appreciated as a golden-yellow gemstone in Greece between 300 and 150 BC, during the
Milky quartz
Milk quartz or milky quartz is the most common variety of crystalline quartz. The white color is caused by minute
Rose quartz
Rose quartz is a type of quartz that exhibits a pale pink to rose red hue. The color is usually considered as due to trace amounts of titanium, iron, or manganese in the material. Some rose quartz contains microscopic rutile needles that produce asterism in transmitted light. Recent X-ray diffraction studies suggest that the color is due to thin microscopic fibers of possibly dumortierite within the quartz.[44]
Additionally, there is a rare type of pink quartz (also frequently called crystalline rose quartz) with color that is thought to be caused by trace amounts of phosphate or aluminium. The color in crystals is apparently photosensitive and subject to fading. The first crystals were found in a pegmatite found near Rumford, Maine, US, and in Minas Gerais, Brazil.[45] The crystals found are more transparent and euhedral, due to the impurities of phosphate and aluminium that formed crystalline rose quartz, unlike the iron and microscopic dumortierite fibers that formed rose quartz.[46]
Smoky quartz
Smoky quartz is a gray, translucent version of quartz. It ranges in clarity from almost complete transparency to a brownish-gray crystal that is almost opaque. Some can also be black. The translucency results from natural irradiation acting on minute traces of aluminum in the crystal structure.[47]
Prase
Prase is a green variety of quartz.[48] The green color is caused by inclusions of amphibole.[49]
Prasiolite
Prasiolite, also known as vermarine, is a variety of quartz that is green in color.[50] The green is caused by iron ions.[49] It is a rare mineral in nature and is typically found with amethyst; most "prasiolite" is not natural – it has been artificially produced by heating of amethyst. Since 1950[citation needed], almost all natural prasiolite has come from a small Brazilian mine, but it is also seen in Lower Silesia in Poland. Naturally occurring prasiolite is also found in the Thunder Bay area of Canada.[50]
Piezoelectricity
Quartz crystals have
Occurrence
Quartz is a defining constituent of granite and other felsic igneous rocks. It is very common in sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and shale. It is a common constituent of schist, gneiss, quartzite and other metamorphic rocks.[22] Quartz has the lowest potential for weathering in the Goldich dissolution series and consequently it is very common as a residual mineral in stream sediments and residual soils. Generally a high presence of quartz suggests a "mature" rock, since it indicates the rock has been heavily reworked and quartz was the primary mineral that endured heavy weathering.[54]
While the majority of quartz crystallizes from molten magma, quartz also chemically precipitates from hot hydrothermal veins as gangue, sometimes with ore minerals like gold, silver and copper. Large crystals of quartz are found in magmatic pegmatites.[22] Well-formed crystals may reach several meters in length and weigh hundreds of kilograms.[55]
The largest documented single crystal of quartz was found near
Mining
Quartz is extracted from open pit mines. Miners occasionally use explosives to expose deep pockets of quartz. More frequently, bulldozers and backhoes are used to remove soil and clay and expose quartz veins, which are then worked using hand tools. Care must be taken to avoid sudden temperature changes that may damage the crystals.[57][58]
Related silica minerals
Safety
As quartz is a form of silica, it is a possible cause for concern in various workplaces. Cutting, grinding, chipping, sanding, drilling, and polishing natural and manufactured stone products can release hazardous levels of very small, crystalline silica dust particles into the air that workers breathe.[62] Crystalline silica of respirable size is a recognized human carcinogen and may lead to other diseases of the lungs such as silicosis and pulmonary fibrosis.[63][64]
Synthetic and artificial treatments
Not all varieties of quartz are naturally occurring. Some clear quartz crystals can be treated using heat or gamma-irradiation to induce color where it would not otherwise have occurred naturally. Susceptibility to such treatments depends on the location from which the quartz was mined.[65]
Prasiolite, an olive colored material, is produced by heat treatment;[66] natural prasiolite has also been observed in Lower Silesia in Poland.[67] Although citrine occurs naturally, the majority is the result of heat-treating amethyst or smoky quartz.[66] Carnelian has been heat-treated to deepen its color since prehistoric times.[68]
Because natural quartz is often
Like other crystals, quartz may be coated with metal vapors to give it an attractive sheen.[71][72]
Uses
Quartz is the most common material identified as the mystical substance
While jade has been since earliest times the most prized semi-precious stone for carving in East Asia and Pre-Columbian America, in Europe and the Middle East the different varieties of quartz were the most commonly used for the various types of jewelry and hardstone carving, including engraved gems and cameo gems, rock crystal vases, and extravagant vessels. The tradition continued to produce objects that were very highly valued until the mid-19th century, when it largely fell from fashion except in jewelry. Cameo technique exploits the bands of color in onyx and other varieties.
Efforts to synthesize quartz began in the mid-nineteenth century as scientists attempted to create minerals under laboratory conditions that mimicked the conditions in which the minerals formed in nature: German geologist Karl Emil von Schafhäutl (1803–1890) was the first person to synthesize quartz when in 1845 he created microscopic quartz crystals in a pressure cooker.[74] However, the quality and size of the crystals that were produced by these early efforts were poor.[75]
Elemental impurity incorporation strongly influences the ability to process and utilize quartz. Naturally occurring quartz crystals of extremely high purity, necessary for the crucibles and other equipment used for growing silicon wafers in the semiconductor industry, are expensive and rare. These high-purity quartz are defined as containing less than 50 ppm of impurity elements.[76] A major mining location for high purity quartz is the Spruce Pine Gem Mine in Spruce Pine, North Carolina, United States.[77] Quartz may also be found in Caldoveiro Peak, in Asturias, Spain.[78]
By the 1930s, the electronics industry had become dependent on quartz crystals. The only source of suitable crystals was Brazil; however, World War II disrupted the supplies from Brazil, so nations attempted to synthesize quartz on a commercial scale. German mineralogist Richard Nacken (1884–1971) achieved some success during the 1930s and 1940s.[79] After the war, many laboratories attempted to grow large quartz crystals. In the United States, the U.S. Army Signal Corps contracted with Bell Laboratories and with the Brush Development Company of Cleveland, Ohio to synthesize crystals following Nacken's lead.[80][81] (Prior to World War II, Brush Development produced piezoelectric crystals for record players.) By 1948, Brush Development had grown crystals that were 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) in diameter, the largest at that time.[82][83] By the 1950s, hydrothermal synthesis techniques were producing synthetic quartz crystals on an industrial scale, and today virtually all the quartz crystal used in the modern electronics industry is synthetic.[70]
An early use of the piezoelectricity of quartz crystals was in phonograph pickups. One of the most common piezoelectric uses of quartz today is as a crystal oscillator. The quartz oscillator or resonator was first developed by Walter Guyton Cady in 1921.[84][85] George Washington Pierce designed and patented quartz crystal oscillators in 1923.[86][87][88] The quartz clock is a familiar device using the mineral. Warren Marrison created the first quartz oscillator clock based on the work of Cady and Pierce in 1927.[89] The resonant frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator is changed by mechanically loading it, and this principle is used for very accurate measurements of very small mass changes in the quartz crystal microbalance and in thin-film thickness monitors.[90]
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Rock crystal jug with cut festoon decoration byNational Museum in Warsaw. The city of Milan, apart from Prague and Florence, was the main Renaissance centre for crystal cutting.[91]
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Synthetic quartz crystals produced in the autoclave shown in Western Electric's pilot hydrothermal quartz plant in 1959
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Fatimid ewer in carved rock crystal (clear quartz) with gold lid, c. 1000
Almost all the industrial demand for quartz crystal (used primarily in electronics) is met with synthetic quartz produced by the hydrothermal process. However, synthetic crystals are less prized for use as gemstones.
See also
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External links
- Quartz varieties, properties, crystal morphology. Photos and illustrations
- Gilbert Hart, "Nomenclature of Silica", American Mineralogist, Volume 12, pp. 383–395. 1927
- "The Quartz Watch – Inventors". The Lemelson Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 7 January 2009.
- Terminology used to describe the characteristics of quartz crystals when used as oscillators
- Quartz use as prehistoric stone tool raw material