Qubit
Units of information |
Information-theoretic |
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Data storage |
Quantum information |
In quantum computing, a qubit (/ˈkjuːbɪt/) or quantum bit is a basic unit of quantum information—the quantum version of the classic binary bit physically realized with a two-state device. A qubit is a two-state (or two-level) quantum-mechanical system, one of the simplest quantum systems displaying the peculiarity of quantum mechanics. Examples include the spin of the electron in which the two levels can be taken as spin up and spin down; or the polarization of a single photon in which the two spin states (left-handed and the right-handed circular polarization) can also be measured as horizontal and vertical linear polarization. In a classical system, a bit would have to be in one state or the other. However, quantum mechanics allows the qubit to be in a coherent superposition of multiple states simultaneously, a property that is fundamental to quantum mechanics and quantum computing.
Etymology
The coining of the term qubit is attributed to Benjamin Schumacher.[1] In the acknowledgments of his 1995 paper, Schumacher states that the term qubit was created in jest during a conversation with William Wootters.
Bit versus qubit
A
In classical computer technologies, a processed bit is implemented by one of two levels of low
There are two possible outcomes for the measurement of a qubit—usually taken to have the value "0" and "1", like a bit. However, whereas the state of a bit can only be binary (either 0 or 1), the general state of a qubit according to quantum mechanics can arbitrarily be a coherent superposition of all computable states simultaneously.[2] Moreover, whereas a measurement of a classical bit would not disturb its state, a measurement of a qubit would destroy its coherence and irrevocably disturb the superposition state. It is possible to fully encode one bit in one qubit. However, a qubit can hold more information, e.g., up to two bits using superdense coding.
For a system of n components, a complete description of its state in classical physics requires only n bits, whereas in quantum physics a system of n qubits requires 2n complex numbers (or a single point in a 2n-dimensional vector space).[3][clarification needed]
Standard representation
In quantum mechanics, the general quantum state of a qubit can be represented by a linear superposition of its two orthonormal basis states (or basis vectors). These vectors are usually denoted as and . They are written in the conventional Dirac—or "bra–ket"—notation; the and are pronounced "ket 0" and "ket 1", respectively. These two orthonormal basis states, , together called the computational basis, are said to span the two-dimensional linear vector (Hilbert) space of the qubit.
Qubit basis states can also be combined to form product basis states. A set of qubits taken together is called a quantum register. For example, two qubits could be represented in a four-dimensional linear vector space spanned by the following product basis states:
, , , and .
In general, n qubits are represented by a superposition state vector in 2n dimensional Hilbert space.
Qubit states
A pure qubit state is a
where α and β are the probability amplitudes, and are both complex numbers. When we measure this qubit in the standard basis, according to the Born rule, the probability of outcome with value "0" is and the probability of outcome with value "1" is . Because the absolute squares of the amplitudes equate to probabilities, it follows that and must be constrained according to the second axiom of probability theory by the equation[4]
The probability amplitudes, and , encode more than just the probabilities of the outcomes of a measurement; the relative phase between and is for example responsible for quantum interference, as seen in the two-slit experiment.
Bloch sphere representation
It might, at first sight, seem that there should be four degrees of freedom in , as and are complex numbers with two degrees of freedom each. However, one degree of freedom is removed by the normalization constraint |α|2 + |β|2 = 1. This means, with a suitable change of coordinates, one can eliminate one of the degrees of freedom. One possible choice is that of Hopf coordinates:
Additionally, for a single qubit the global phase of the state has no physically observable consequences,[a] so we can arbitrarily choose α to be real (or β in the case that α is zero), leaving just two degrees of freedom:
where is the physically significant relative phase.[5][b]
The possible quantum states for a single qubit can be visualised using a
The surface of the Bloch sphere is a
Mixed state
A pure state is fully specified by a single ket, a coherent superposition, represented by a point on the surface of the Bloch sphere as described above. Coherence is essential for a qubit to be in a superposition state. With interactions,
Quantum error correction can be used to maintain the purity of qubits.
Operations on qubits
There are various kinds of physical operations that can be performed on qubits.
- Quantum logic gates, building blocks for a quantum circuit in a quantum computer, operate on a set of qubits (a register); mathematically, the qubits undergo a (reversible) unitary transformation described by multiplying the quantum gates unitary matrix with the quantum state vector. The result from this multiplication is a new quantum state.
- coherenceis lost. The result of the measurement of a single qubit with the state will be either with probability or with probability . Measurement of the state of the qubit alters the magnitudes of α and β. For instance, if the result of the measurement is , α is changed to 0 and β is changed to the phase factor no longer experimentally accessible. If measurement is performed on a qubit that is entangled, the measurement may collapse the state of the other entangled qubits.
- Initialization or re-initialization to a known value, often . This operation collapses the quantum state (exactly like with measurement). Initialization to may be implemented logically or physically: Logically as a measurement, followed by the application of the Pauli-X gate if the result from the measurement was . Physically, for example if it is a superconducting phase qubit, by lowering the energy of the quantum system to its ground state.
- Sending the qubit through a quantum channel to a remote system or machine (an I/O operation), potentially as part of a quantum network.
Quantum entanglement
An important distinguishing feature between qubits and classical bits is that multiple qubits can exhibit quantum entanglement; the qubit itself is an exhibition of quantum entanglement. In this case, quantum entanglement is a local or nonlocal property of two or more qubits that allows a set of qubits to express higher correlation than is possible in classical systems.
The simplest system to display quantum entanglement is the system of two qubits. Consider, for example, two entangled qubits in the Bell state:
In this state, called an equal superposition, there are equal probabilities of measuring either product state or , as . In other words, there is no way to tell if the first qubit has value "0" or "1" and likewise for the second qubit.
Imagine that these two entangled qubits are separated, with one each given to Alice and Bob. Alice makes a measurement of her qubit, obtaining—with equal probabilities—either or , i.e., she can now tell if her qubit has value "0" or "1". Because of the qubits' entanglement, Bob must now get exactly the same measurement as Alice. For example, if she measures a , Bob must measure the same, as is the only state where Alice's qubit is a . In short, for these two entangled qubits, whatever Alice measures, so would Bob, with perfect correlation, in any basis, however far apart they may be and even though both can not tell if their qubit has value "0" or "1" — a most surprising circumstance that can not be explained by classical physics.
Controlled gate to construct the Bell state
Controlled gates act on 2 or more qubits, where one or more qubits act as a control for some specified operation. In particular, the controlled NOT gate (or CNOT or CX) acts on 2 qubits, and performs the NOT operation on the second qubit only when the first qubit is , and otherwise leaves it unchanged. With respect to the unentangled product basis , , , , it maps the basis states as follows:
- .
A common application of the CNOT gate is to maximally entangle two qubits into the Bell state. To construct , the inputs A (control) and B (target) to the CNOT gate are:
and
After applying CNOT, the output is the Bell State: .
Applications
The Bell state forms part of the setup of the superdense coding, quantum teleportation, and entangled quantum cryptography algorithms.
Quantum entanglement also allows multiple states (such as the Bell state mentioned above) to be acted on simultaneously, unlike classical bits that can only have one value at a time. Entanglement is a necessary ingredient of any quantum computation that cannot be done efficiently on a classical computer. Many of the successes of quantum computation and communication, such as quantum teleportation and superdense coding, make use of entanglement, suggesting that entanglement is a resource that is unique to quantum computation.[6] A major hurdle facing quantum computing, as of 2018, in its quest to surpass classical digital computing, is noise in quantum gates that limits the size of quantum circuits that can be executed reliably.[7]
Quantum register
A number of qubits taken together is a
Qudits and qutrits
The term qudit denotes the unit of quantum information that can be realized in suitable d-level quantum systems.[8] A qubit register that can be measured to N states is identical[c] to an N-level qudit. A rarely used[9] synonym for qudit is quNit,[10] since both d and N are frequently used to denote the dimension of a quantum system.
Qudits are similar to the integer types in classical computing, and may be mapped to (or realized by) arrays of qubits. Qudits where the d-level system is not an exponent of 2 cannot be mapped to arrays of qubits. It is for example possible to have 5-level qudits.
In 2017, scientists at the
In 2022, researchers at the University of Innsbruck succeeded in developing a universal qudit quantum processor with trapped ions.[12] In the same year, researchers at Tsinghua University's Center for Quantum Information implemented the dual-type qubit scheme in trapped ion quantum computers using the same ion species.[13]
Similar to the qubit, the
Physical implementations
Any
All physical implementations are affected by noise. The so-called T1 lifetime and T2 dephasing time are a time to characterize the physical implementation and represent their sensitivity to noise. A higher time does not necessarily mean that one or the other qubit is better suited for quantum computing because gate times and fidelities need to be considered, too.
Different applications like
The following is an incomplete list of physical implementations of qubits, and the choices of basis are by convention only.
Physical support | Name | Information support | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Photon | Polarization encoding | Polarization of light
|
Horizontal | Vertical |
Number of photons | Fock state | Vacuum | Single photon state | |
Time-bin encoding | Time of arrival | Early | Late | |
Coherent state of light | Squeezed light | Quadrature | Amplitude-squeezed state | Phase-squeezed state |
Electrons | Electronic spin | Spin | Up | Down |
Electron number | Charge | No electron | Two electron | |
Nucleus | Spin | Up | Down | |
Neutral atom | Atomic energy level | Spin | Up | Down |
Trapped ion | Atomic energy level | Spin | Up | Down |
Josephson junction
|
Superconducting charge qubit | Charge | Uncharged superconducting island (Q=0) | Charged superconducting island (Q=2e, one extra Cooper pair) |
Superconducting flux qubit | Current | Clockwise current | Counterclockwise current | |
Superconducting phase qubit | Energy | Ground state | First excited state | |
Singly charged quantum dot pair | Electron localization | Charge | Electron on left dot | Electron on right dot |
Quantum dot | Dot spin | Spin | Down | Up |
Gapped topological system | Non-abelian anyons | Braiding of Excitations | Depends on specific topological system | Depends on specific topological system |
Vibrational qubit[15] | Vibrational states | Phonon/vibron | superposition | superposition |
van der Waals heterostructure[16]
|
Electron localization | Charge | Electron on bottom sheet | Electron on top sheet |
Qubit storage
In 2008 a team of scientists from the U.K. and U.S. reported the first relatively long (1.75 seconds) and coherent transfer of a superposition state in an electron spin "processing" qubit to a
See also
- Ancilla bit
- Bell state, W state and GHZ state
- Bloch sphere
- Physical and logical qubits
- Quantum register
- Two-state quantum system
- The elements of the quantum gates[21]
- The circle group U(1)define the phase about the qubits basis states
Notes
- eigenstate). The global phase factor is not measurable, because it applies to both basis states, and is on the complex unit circle so
Note that by removing it means that quantum states with global phase can not be represented as points on the surface of the Bloch sphere. - Measuringinstead in the X or Y Pauli basis depends on the relative phase. For example, will (because this state lies on the positive pole of the Y-axis) in the Y-basis always measure to the same value, while in the Z-basis results in equal probability of being measured to or .
Because measurement collapses the quantum state, measuring the state in one basis hides some of the values that would have been measurable the other basis; See the uncertainty principle. - ^ Actually isomorphic: For a register with qubits and
References
- ^
PMID 9911903.
- ISBN 978-1-107-00217-3.
- S2CID 2337707.
- ISBN 978-1-84628-887-6.
- OCLC 43641333.
- S2CID 59577352.
- S2CID 44098998.
- S2CID 110606655.
- arxiv.org.
- S2CID 39822693.
- ^ Choi, Charles Q. (2017-06-28). "Qudits: The Real Future of Quantum Computing?". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 2017-06-29.
- S2CID 237513730. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
- ^ Fardelli, Ingrid (August 18, 2022). "Researchers realize two coherently convertible qubit types using a single ion species". Phys.org.
- ^ Irving, Michael (2022-10-14). ""64-dimensional quantum space" drastically boosts quantum computing". New Atlas. Retrieved 2022-10-14.
- PMID 22803619.
- ^
B. Lucatto; et al. (2019). "Charge qubit in van der Waals heterostructures". Physical Review B. 100 (12): 121406. S2CID 129945636.
- S2CID 4389416.
- S2CID 42906250.
- PMID 27426851.
- S2CID 232486360.
- S2CID 8764584.
Further reading
- OCLC 43641333.
- Colin P. Williams (2011). Explorations in Quantum Computing. ISBN 978-1-84628-887-6.
- Yanofsky, Noson S.; Mannucci, Mirco (2013). Quantum computing for computer scientists. ISBN 978-0-521-87996-5.
- A treatment of two-level quantum systems, decades before the term "qubit" was coined, is found in the third volume of The Feynman Lectures on Physics (2013 ebook edition), in chapters 9-11.
- A non-traditional motivation of the qubit aimed at non-physicists is found in Quantum Computing Since Democritus, by Scott Aaronson, Cambridge University Press (2013).
- An introduction to qubits for non-specialists, by the person who coined the word, is found in Lecture 21 of The science of information: from language to black holes, by Professor The Great Courses, The Teaching Company (4DVDs, 2015).
- A ISBN 9781492670261.