Quelccaya Ice Cap
Quelccaya | |
---|---|
Quenamari | |
Type | Ice cap |
Location | Peru |
Coordinates | 13°55′30″S 70°49′03″W / 13.92500°S 70.81750°W[1] |
Area | 42.8 sq km (16.5 sq mi) in 2009 |
Length | 17 km |
Width | 3-5 km |
Thickness | 100-150 m (200 m at thickest) |
Highest elevation | 5,700 m |
Lowest elevation | 5,200 m |
Status | Retreating |
The Quelccaya Ice Cap (also known as Quenamari Ice Cap) is the second largest
A number of
Quelccaya was much larger in the past, merging with neighbouring glaciers during the
After reaching a secondary
Geography
The Quelccaya Ice Cap lies in the tropical highlands of southern
The
Human geography
The ice cap lies in a remote area.
The region around the ice cap is sparsely populated.
Ice cap
The Quelccaya ice cap
The ice forms a relatively thin and flat structure with several ice domes.[b][29][41] The number of ice domes is variously considered to be two, three or four.[31][41][36] Close to the summit of the ice cap the ice is 100–150 metres (330–490 ft) thick,[42] with a maximum thickness of about 200 metres (660 ft),[31] and as of 2018[update] the ice has a total volume of over 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi).[43]
Between 1975 and 2010, Quelccaya covered a median area of 50.2 square kilometres (19.4 sq mi). It has decreased over time,[13] and by 2009 it had shrunk to 42.8 square kilometres (16.5 sq mi) making it smaller than the ice on Coropuna,[44][45] which is not declining as quickly.[46] Before this decline, Quelccaya was considered the largest ice area of the tropics.[44]
The ice flows radially outward from the cap.[47] Ice cliffs reaching heights of 50 metres (160 ft) form most of the margin of Quelccaya.[10][31] They often display banded layers that are 0.5–1 metre (1 ft 8 in – 3 ft 3 in) thick,[48][32] and there are flutes or grooves and icicles.[49] Over interfluves, the border of the ice cap is embayed; that is, the borders of the ice cap retreat above the areas between outlet valleys or glaciers.[50] On the southern and western sides, parts of the ice cap end at steep cliffs like those in polar regions.[31][51] From the icefalls, short glaciers up to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) long[52] descend to elevations of 4,900–5,100 metres (16,100–16,700 ft), with lower elevations reached on the eastern side.[14][31][36] The largest of these glaciers is the Qori Kalis Glacier,[10] which extends from the northern sector of Quelccaya westwards.[1][53] There is a contrast between lobe-like glaciers that emanate into the shallow valleys of the south-western side of Quelccaya and steeper glaciers with crevasses that descend into deeper valleys elsewhere around the ice cap.[54] On the southern side, the ice cap ends in four cirques with icefalls at their head and four sets of moraines downstream.[55] Melting at Quelccaya occurs at the bottom,[56] and meltwater is discharged at the margins.[57] At the top of the ice cap, most ice loss is due to sublimation.[58]
Physical structures
Conditions on the ice cap are polar,[18][59] and the ice surface has structures such as penitentes[c] and sastrugi.[18][60] Penitentes occur especially at lower elevations on the ice cap;[60] at higher elevations they become smaller and eventually vanish, replaced with plate-shaped ice crystals measuring 0.5–1 centimetre (0.20–0.39 in). Towards the summit, the plates are replaced with column- or less commonly needle-shaped crystals, and eventually by dendritic crystals on the summit.[61] On the summit there are lenses of ice, probably from melting.[62]
Reconnaissance in 1974–1977 found
Physical-chemical traits
The ice cap contains
The ice of Quelccaya does not appear to have been particularly erosive during the late Holocene, as indicated by the preservation of plant remains below it.[73] The ice cap may have been in a temperate and erosive state when it was retreating (such as during the early Holocene), and cold-based and thus not very erosive during the expansion of the late Holocene.[74][75] Cold-based glaciers do not produce much meltwater and do not erode the ground they rest on as they fluctuate.[76]
Especially during the dry season,
During winter, most
Geomorphology
The plateau that Quelccaya rises from features smooth bedrock with a slope from the northeast to the southwest but is relatively flat, such that even a small rise in the freezing level will result in a large change in the ice.[1][10] The plateau is surrounded by land forms known as escarpments and a number of valleys emanate from the plateau.[15][90]
On the western side of Quelccaya these valleys include, from northwest of the ice cap southward, the Qori Kalis valley, Challpa Cocha valley,
West of Quelccaya lies a high plain that is formed by
A number of lakes occur in the region of Quelccaya and the Cordillera Vilcanota, including
- Laguna Accocancha/Aconcancha and Laguna Paco Cocha upvalley from Aconcancha both south of the Huancané valley.[102][103][104]
- Anauta Cucho and Ccomer Cocha on the eastern side of the ice cap at the head of the Huayllani and Anccasi valleys, respectively.[39]
- Challpacocha west-southwest from Qori Kalis; it is a tarn lake that receives meltwater from Quelccaya through several channels that flow through wetlands.[95][99]
- Churuyo southwest from Quelccaya.[102]
- Lado del Quelccaya, Lado del Quelccaya 2 and Laguna 5 due west.[101]
- "North Lake", "Base Camp Lake" and "Boulder Lake" west of Quelccaya. These three lakes lie at 5,100–5,200 metres (16,700–17,100 ft) elevation and formed within bedrock depressions when the glaciers retreated.[1]
- Pegador Pond west-northwest from the ice cap.[101]
- "Yanacocha" in the "South Fork" valley west of Quelccaya.[27][105] It also is a tarn lake[95] and developed in a formerly glaciated basin below an ignimbrite headwall. It currently forms a separate watershed from Quelccaya as it does not receive meltwater.[27]
Geology
Quelccaya lies on a plateau formed by
Climate
Annually, about 1,150 millimetres (45 in) of
Most precipitation falls in
Unlike precipitation, temperatures are relatively stable throughout the year with day–night temperature differences exceeding seasonal ones.
Winds are strongest during the day and mostly blow from the west, except during the rainy season when they also come from the east or north-east.[125][126] The ice cap itself generates its own downslope katabatic wind, which blows over the ice and quickly peters out with distance from the ice margin.[127]
Climate variability
The climate is influenced by the
Ice cores show evidence of past climate variability, such as increased precipitation in the years 1870–1984, 1500–1720, 760–1040 and with
Vegetation and animal life
The terrain west of Quelccaya is sparsely vegetated with high elevation tundra vegetation.[27][137] The vegetation in the region is known as puna grassland;[138][52] above 4,300 metres (14,100 ft) elevation it is defined as "super-Puna", and consists of herbs and shrubs such as Plantago and trees like Polylepis which grow to the ice cap and often have a krummholz appearance.[139] The main human use of the area is livestock grazing but crop planting has also been reported.[27][140]
There are over fifty plant species in the terrain around the ice cap.[140] Aquatic plants are found in lakes.[95] The glacial runoff and precipitation guarantee an ample water supply, leading to the development of wetlands known as bofedales and peat;[42] The cushion plant Distichia muscoides is the dominant plant in the bofedales and these wetlands are hotspots of biodiversity,[29][95][141] but tussock grasses have been expanding in the wetlands as ice retreats.[141] Other plants include Festuca orthophylla (a grass), Jarava ichu (Peruvian feathergrass) and nettles.[23] Twenty-three lichen species have been identified growing on rocks at Quelccaya.[137][140]
Among animals are 60 species of birds,
Scientific research and monitoring
Glaciers in the region have been monitored since the 1970s.
Ice cores
The layered appearance of the Quelccaya ice cap at its margins suggested to scientists that the ice cap could be used to obtain
Dust layers deposited during the dry season allow the determination of yearly layers,[47][159] which characteristically thin downward.[85] Volcanic ash deposited by the 1600 Huaynaputina eruption has been used to date the ice cores;[160][161] in turn the volume of the eruption was reconstructed from the ash thickness in the ice core.[162]
A number of research findings have been made with the Quelccaya ice cores:
- The ice cores contain annually resolved
- Oxygen isotope ratio variations record the Little Ice Age,[165] which clearly stands out in the Quelccaya ice core record.[166] The Quelccaya record was used to infer that the Little Ice Age was a global event,[167] and that temperature and precipitation variations took place during the Little Ice Age. An early wet phase occurred between 1500 and 1720 and a late dry phase between 1720 and 1880.[165][168] At the ice cap, the Little Ice Age ended relatively suddenly around 1880.[169]
- The oxygen isotope ratios also vary during El Niño years and the ice cores have been employed to make a record of ENSO events.[79][130] The 1976 and the 1982–1983 El Niño events have been identified in the ice cores.[170]
- A correlation between precipitation on the ice cap with water levels in Lake Titicaca and traces of the severe drought between 1933 and 1945 have been found in the ice core record of Quelccaya.[171][172]
- Other climate events recorded at Quelccaya are the 1815 eruption of Indonesia's
- Recent ice layers bear record of historic volcanic eruptions, mining activities in Peru.[175]
- Additional findings in the ice cores are dust clouds generated by
The Quelccaya ice cores are widely used to reconstruct past
Natural history
Moraines deposited by older glaciers indicate that during the
No direct evidence of glacier expansions in times preceding
By 13,600–12,800 years ago Quelccaya had retreated concomitant with global glacier shrinkage at the end of the last glacial maximum. A readvance occurred 12,500 years ago, linked to a colder and wetter climate during the Younger Dryas. Retreat recommenced 12,400 years ago and by 11,800–11,600 years ago the ice cap had reached an extent like during the Little Ice Age and modern times.[194][195] Another proposed chronology indicates a glacier expansion beginning 13,300 years ago and ending by 12,900 years ago, with Quelccaya reaching a size not much larger than during the Holocene by 12,800 years ago.[196] A final scenario envisages an advance between 12,700 and 11,000 years ago.[197] There might have been two readvances, one in the early Younger Dryas and the other around 12,600 years ago.[198] A halt in retreat or an actual advance of Quelccaya may or may not have occurred at the same time as the former Lake Tauca existed on the Altiplano,[l] and it is possible that the retreat occurred during the middle Younger Dryas.[198][200]
Holocene
During the Holocene, Quelccaya did not expand farther than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from its present position and early Holocene moraines have not been found.
The ice cap began to grow again at a time of global climate change, 5,000 years ago, which included the drying of the
About 4,000 years ago, a new retreat occurred under the influence of warmer and drier climates,[213] and another shrinkage also occurred between 3,000 and 1,500 years ago.[214] Alternatively, 3,400 and 1,500 years before present the ice cap may have extended 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) past its current limit, and about 0.8 kilometres (0.50 mi) past its limit 1,600 years ago.[215]
Chronology at Huancané and Qori Kalis
Multiple moraines have been dated in the Huancané valley.[36] Three separate glacial stages have been identified here: H1 (the shortest), H2 and H3 (the longest).[103] They have left moraines 8 kilometres (5.0 mi), 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) and 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from the 2002 ice margin and are also known as Huancane I, Huancane II and Huancane III, names which are sometimes applied to the glacial advances themselves.[104][216] The moraines in the valley are terminal moraines and consist of sets of ridges up to 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) wide.[40][217] Boulders found on the Huancane III moraines have fresher appearances than these on the other moraines.[93] Huancane III has also been subdivided into Huancane IIIa, IIIb and IIIc and Huancane II into Huancane IIa, IIb and IIc.[42][98] These are all regressional moraines, as by the time of the emplacement of Huancane moraines, Quelccaya was shrinking and was already disconnected from the ice on the Cordillera Vilcanota.[218][219] Finally, there is a set of moraines farther down the Huancané valley that appears to be the oldest.[220] Equivalents of the Huancane moraines have been identified outside of the Huancané valley.[41]
- Huancane III appear to be a last glacial maximum stand or a stand just after the last glacial maximum such as Heinrich event 1 although its age is not well known.[42][221][222]
- Huancane II appear to have formed during a post-last glacial maximum advance.[222] One view sees Huancane II as preceding the Younger Dryas and perhaps connected to the Antarctic Cold Reversal;[195][223][224] another one assumes that Quelccaya was smaller during the Antarctic Cold Reversal and that Huancane II formed during the Younger Dryas,[42][194] and a final one that Huancane II was a localized glacier advance.[225]
- Huancane I moraines are less than 1,000 years old and reflect the Little Ice Age extent of the Quelccaya ice cap which at Quelccaya occurred between about 1490 and 1880.[90][226][227] They also record expansions that occurred 1,000, 600, 400 and 200 years ago.[96] Huancane I moraines are found all around Quelccaya, and noticeable Little Ice Age moraines are also found in front of the outlet glaciers on the southeastern side of Quelccaya.[204][228]
About 16 late Holocene moraines are also found downstream of Qori Kalis glacier,
Implications
Estimating the ages of moraines is difficult. A retreating glacier will deposit successive moraines but an advancing one can destroy older moraines less extensive than the glacier advance. Dates obtained from organic material behind a moraine may be considerably younger than the moraine as its development occurs with a lag from deglaciation, while organic matter in or underneath a moraine may be considerably older.[230] Changes in sediment fluxes to lakes west of Quelccaya appear to reflect advances and retreats of glaciers, with meltwater formed during retreats increasing sediment fluxes.[231]
The extent of the Quelccaya ice cap does not appear to correlate with the amount of precipitation occurring on the ice cap except in particular cases;[229] temperature effects appear to dominate and warmer and wetter climates have been associated with retreat.[227][232] This dominance of temperature over precipitation in determining ice cap size and glacier length has been replicated by modelling.[233] Interannual climate variability does not have substantial effects on the extent of the ice cap.[234]
Present retreat
The glaciers are melting at increasing rates, with rapid deglaciation underway during the late 20th century at a rate that is comparable to or exceeds that of postglacial retreat rates.[235] Between 1980 and 2010, the ice cap shrank at a rate of 0.57 ± 0.1 square kilometres per year (0.220 ± 0.039 sq mi/a) with a loss of 30% of its area between 1979 and 2014.[236][237][238] Between 1990 and 2009, a southeastern branch of the ice cap disappeared altogether.[239] At the northwestern and southeastern ends of the ice cap, the retreat has reached the plateau that Quelccaya sits on.[75] Additionally, parts of the northwestern ice cap have separated from the main ice body and by 2011 the retreat had reduced Quelccaya to a size smaller than at any other time in the past 6,000 years.[240][241] There is some variation between retreat rates measured by different researchers as the Quelccaya ice cap is differently defined and due to differences between extents measured in seasons with and without snow cover.[242] True fluctuations also occur, such as an advance of part of Quelccaya's southern margin reported in 1977 which bulldozed peat deposits,[17][243] a pause of the Qori Kalis glacier between 1991 and 1993 probably linked with the global cooling caused by the Philippine Pinatubo eruption in 1991,[244] a slow-down in the mid-2000s and an overall higher rate of retreat since 2000.[245]
The Qori Kalis outlet glacier has been observed since 1963, and between 1963 and 1978 retreated by about 6 metres per year (20 ft/a) and between 1991 and 2005 by about 60 metres per year (200 ft/a).[1][35] The retreat has been accompanied by a volume loss of the ice cap, increasing from 290,000 cubic metres per year (10,000,000 cu ft/a) between 1963 and 1978 over 1,310,000 cubic metres per year (46,000,000 cu ft/a) between 1978 and 1983 to 2,200,000 cubic metres per year (78,000,000 cu ft/a) between 1983 and 1991.[53] The rate of retreat is higher than at the end of the last ice age and the glacier responds quickly to climate alterations.[9]
Similar retreats have been observed at other tropical glaciers, and are linked to the increase in global temperatures caused by industrial greenhouse gas emissions.[2][4] This warming is unprecedented by the standards of the late Holocene.[246]
Consequences
Meltwater lakes[240] and proglacial lakes have formed in front of Qori Kalis glacier and other Quelccaya glaciers and expanded in size.[75][242][247][248] These lakes could be sources of future glacial lake outburst floods, although the sparse population of the area means that potential damages caused by these floods would be lessened.[249] Two such floods occurred in March 2006 and December 2007, caused property damage and killed livestock.[248] In addition, some lakes have drained and the course of streams has changed as the glaciers have retreated.[250]
The freezing level regularly rises above the summit of Quelccaya, and in recent ice cores, meltwater infiltration has become apparent.[56][251] Consequently, oxygen isotope ratios are no longer preserved in the ice; while this infiltration has smoothened the record only to a certain depth[252][253][254] and particle-based records are unaffected,[255] it illustrates the threat that climate change is creating for the existence of climate archives in ice cores.[256] Alpine life is quickly advancing into the terrain left by ice,[140] and the retreat has exposed plant remains that had been overrun during a glacier expansion that occurred 5,000 years ago.[209]
Projections
Projected climate change is expected to involve a further 3–5 °C (5.4–9.0 °F) warming in the central Andes, with higher warming occurring at higher elevations.[236] Owing to the low altitude range spanned by Quelccaya, it is highly vulnerable to future warming.[37] In the RCP8.5 climate change scenario,[m] during the 21st century the equilibrium line altitude will rise above the top of the ice cap and thus the entire cap will become a zone of net ice loss and Quelccaya will disappear. In scenarios that include aggressive mitigation measures, the ice cap may persist, while intermediate scenarios predict a loss of the ice cap in the 22nd century.[258][259] There is some uncertainty owing to, for example, changes in precipitation, including any potential future decrease.[260][261]
Hydrology and significance
Glacial meltwater is an important source of water especially in dry years and during the dry season,[4] including in the Altiplano and in the hyperarid coasts of Peru.[246] For example, about 80% of Peru's hydropower sources are buffered by glacial meltwater.[262] Avalanches and floods from glaciers have killed over 35,000 people and glacial retreat will likely increase their incidence.[150][246] Enhanced melting may be contributing to streamflow, and past meltwater flows might have contributed to the formation of large lakes in the Altiplano.[4]
Most of Quelccaya borders on the
Quelccaya is the largest glacierized area in the watershed of the San Gabán
Notes
- plateau glacier.[33]
- ^ Dome-shaped parts of the ice cap.[41]
- ^ Inclined boards or sheets of snow.[60]
- ^ Meaning that ice temperatures below 10 metres (33 ft) depth reach 0 °C (32 °F).[67]
- ^ Informal name;[42] Huancané is sometimes called North Fork Huancané.[91]
- ^ Graupel - snow crystals with much rime - is common.[112]
- ^ The rate at which temperature declines with elevation.[123]
- ^ Reaching the bedrock[153]
- BCE may exist at Quelccaya.[157]
- ^ The equilibrium line altitude is the elevation on an ice body where the annual ice accumulation and ice loss balance each other.[184]
- ^ Different sources give different ages.[190][192]
- ^ Approximately 17,500–15,000 years ago.[199]
- ^ RCP8.5 is an extreme greenhouse gas emissions scenario with unmitigated increases in greenhouse gas emissions. It is not the most likely scenario, given the decrease in some high-greenhouse gas emission energy sources such as coal.[257]
- ^ Sometimes it is also stated that Lake Titicaca receives water from Quelccaya[263] but watershed maps show Quelccaya bordering on the Inambari River and Vilcanota River watershed, both of which drain to the Atlantic Ocean.[264]
See also
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External links
- Quelccaya Climate
- Scaling Quelccaya: Using 3-D Animation and Satellite Data To Visualize Climate Change