Quran

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Quran
Arabic: ٱلْقُرْآن, romanizedal-Qurʾān
Quran opened, resting on a stand
Information
ReligionIslam
LanguageClassical Arabic
Period610–632 CE
Chapters114 (list)
See Surah
Verses6,348 (including the basmala)
6,236 (excluding the basmala)
See Āyah
Full text
Quran at Arabic Wikisource
Quran at English Wikisource

The Quran,

ayat). In addition to its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature,[12][13][14] and has significantly influenced the Arabic language
.

Muslims believe that the Quran was orally revealed by God to the final Islamic prophet Muhammad through the archangel Gabriel incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning on the Night of Power,[15] when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death at age 61–62.[11][16][17] Muslims regard the Quran as Muhammad's most important miracle, a proof of his prophethood,[18] and the culmination of a series of divine messages starting with those revealed to the first Islamic prophet Adam, including the Islamic holy books of the Torah, Psalms, and Gospel.

The Quran is believed by Muslims to be not simply

Uthmanic codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with mostly minor differences in meaning. Controversy over the Quran's content integrity has rarely become an issue among Muslim history[23][v] despite some hadiths stating that the textual integrity of the Quran was not preserved.[25]

The Quran assumes the reader's

Islamic law in most denominations of Islam,[29][vi] are hadiths—oral and written traditions believed to describe words and actions of Muhammad.[vii][29] During prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic.[30] Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz. Ideally, verses are recited with a special kind of prosody reserved for this purpose, called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers. In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, Muslims rely on exegesis, or commentary rather than a direct translation of the text.[31]

Etymology and meaning

The word qur'ān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself,

Arabic verb qara'a (قرأ) meaning 'he read' or 'he recited'. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā (ܩܪܝܢܐ), which refers to 'scripture reading' or 'lesson'.[33] While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is qara'a itself.[11] Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime.[11] An important meaning of the word is the 'act of reciting', as reflected in an early Quranic passage: "It is for Us to collect it and to recite it (qur'ānahu)."[34]

In other verses, the word refers to 'an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]'. Its

The term also has closely related

waḥy ('revelation'), that which has been "sent down" (tanzīl) at intervals.[37][38] Other related words include: dhikr ('remembrance'), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning; and ḥikmah ('wisdom'), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.[11][viii]

The Quran describes itself as 'the discernment' (al-furqān), 'the mother book' (umm al-kitāb), 'the guide' (huda), 'the wisdom' (hikmah), 'the remembrance' (dhikr), and 'the revelation' (tanzīl; 'something sent down', signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place).

mus'haf ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books.[11]

History

Prophetic era

Shia sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Quran as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632.[40][41][42] There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation.[43]

Traditionally believed to be Muhammad's first revelation, Surah Al-Alaq, later placed 96th in the Qur'anic regulations, in current writing style

magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood.[47]

The Quran describes Muhammad as "ummi",

Al-Tabari maintained that the term induced two meanings: first, the inability to read or write in general; second, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures (but they gave priority to the first meaning). Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as W. Montgomery Watt prefer the second meaning of ummi—they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts.[41][49]

The final verse of the Quran was revealed on the 18th of the Islamic month of

the Prophet finished delivering his sermon at Ghadir Khumm
.

Compilation and preservation

Following Muhammad's death in 632, a number of his companions who knew the Quran by heart were killed in the

Uthman ibn Affan,[21] requested the standard copy from her.[51] (According to historian Michael Cook, early Muslim narratives about the collection and compilation of the Quran sometimes contradict themselves. "Most ... make Uthman little more than an editor, but there are some in which he appears very much a collector, appealing to people to bring him any bit of the Quran they happen to possess." Some accounts also "suggest that in fact the material" Abu Bakr worked with "had already been assembled", which since he was the first Caliph, would mean they were collected when Muhammad was still alive.)[52]

In about 650, Uthman (d. 656) began noticing slight differences in pronunciation of the Quran as Islam expanded beyond the

Persia, the Levant, and North Africa. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard text of the Quran.[53][54] Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death (around 650 CE),[55] the complete Quran was committed to written form, a codex. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed.[53][56][57][58] The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.[41][42][x]
[xi] This preservation of the Quran is considered one of the miracles of the Quran among the Islamic faithful.[xii]

Quran − in Mashhad, Iran − said to be written by Ali

The Shī‘ah recite the Qur'an according to the

Abbasid caliphate," whence belief in the corruption of the Quran became untenable vis-a-vis the position of Sunni “orthodoxy”.[68] Alleged distortions to have been carried out to remove any references to the rights of Ali, the Imams and their supporters and the disapproval of enemies, such as Umayyads and Abbasids.[69]

Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including

Ubay ibn Ka'b's codex, none of which exist today.[11][53][70]

Academic research

Since Muslims could regard

criticism of the Qur'an as a crime of apostasy punishable by death under sharia, it seemed impossible to conduct studies on the Qur'an that went beyond textual criticism.[71][72] Until the early 1970s,[73] non-Muslim scholars of Islam —while not accepting traditional explanations for divine intervention— accepted the above-mentioned traditional origin story in most details.[22]

The basmala as written on the Birmingham mus'haf manuscript, one of the oldest surviving copies of the Qur'an. Rasm: "ٮسم الله الرحمں الرحىم".

critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based.[xiii]

Stanford '07 binary manuscript contains verses 265-271 of Surah Al-Baqara
. The double layer reveals additions to the original text and differences with today's Quran.

In 1972, in a mosque in the city of

Sana'a manuscripts contain palimpsests, manuscript pages from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to the scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text (scriptio inferior) is still barely visible.[78] Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 CE with a 99 percent probability.[79][80] The German scholar Gerd R. Puin has been investigating these Quran fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts, which he dated to the early part of the 8th century. Puin has noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography, and suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one.[81]

In 2015, a single folio of a very early Quran, dating back to 1370 years earlier, was discovered in the library of the University of Birmingham, England. According to the tests carried out by the Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, "with a probability of more than 95%, the parchment was from between 568 and 645". The manuscript is written in Hijazi script, an early form of written Arabic.[82] This possibly was one of the earliest extant exemplars of the Quran, but as the tests allow a range of possible dates, it cannot be said with certainty which of the existing versions is the oldest.[82] Saudi scholar Saud al-Sarhan has expressed doubt over the age of the fragments as they contain dots and chapter separators that are believed to have originated later.[83] The Birmingham manuscript holds significance amongst scholarship because of its early dating and potential overlap with the dominant tradition over the lifetime of Muhammad c. 570 to 632 CE[84] and used as evidence to support conventional wisdom and to refute the revisionists' views on the history of the writing of the Quran.[85]

Significance in Islam

Muslims believe the Quran to be God's final revelation to humanity, a work of divine guidance revealed to

angel Gabriel.[16][86][87][88]

Talismanic tunic, North India-Deccan, Metropolitan Museum

Quran says, "With the truth we (God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down"

revelation and divine writing, the word used by Islamic literature to express the context of the Qur'anic verses is "Asbab al-Nuzul
".

Revered by pious Muslims as "the holy of holies",[93] whose sound moves some to "tears and ecstasy",[94] it is the physical symbol of the faith, the text often used as a charm on occasions of birth, death, marriage. Traditionally, before starting to read the Quran, ablution is performed, one seeks refuge in Allah from the accursed satan, and the reading begins by mentioning the names of Allah, Rahman and Rahim together known as basmala. Consequently,

It must never rest beneath other books, but always on top of them, one must never drink or smoke when it is being read aloud, and it must be listened to in silence. It is a talisman against disease and disaster.[93][95]

The Quran was the word of God (Kalām Allāh) (again, a word used for Jesus in the Quran (An-Nisa: 171), and its nature and whether it was created became a matter of fierce debate among religious scholars;[96] and with the involvement of the political authority in the discussions, some Muslim religious scholars who stood against the political stance faced religious persecution during the caliph al-Ma'mun period and the following years.

Muslims believe that the present Quranic text corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad, and according to their interpretation of Quran 15:9, it is protected from corruption ("Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, We will be its guardians").[97] Muslims consider the Quran to be a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. For this reason, in traditional Islamic societies, great importance was given to children memorizing the Quran, and those who memorized the entire Quran were honored with the title of hafiz. Even today, millions of Muslims frequently refer to the Quran to justify their actions and desires",[xiv] and see it as the source of scientific knowledge,[99] though some refer to it as weird or pseudoscience.[100]

Inimitability

In

Qur’ān has a miraculous quality, both in content and in form, that no human speech can match.[101] According to this, the Qur'an is a miracle and its inimitability is the proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status. The literary quality of the Qur'an has been praised by Muslim scholars and by many non-Muslim scholars.[102] The doctrine of the miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.[103]

The first works about the I'jaz of the Quran began to appear in the 9th century in the

Mu'tazila circles, which emphasized only its literary aspect, and were adopted by other religious groups.[104] The most famous works on the doctrine of inimitability are two medieval books by the grammarian Al Jurjani (d. 1078 CE), Dala’il al-i'jaz ('the Arguments of Inimitability') and Asraral-balagha ('the Secrets of Eloquence').[105] Al Jurjani believed that Qur'an's eloquence must be a certain special quality in the manner of its stylistic arrangement and composition or a certain special way of joining words.[103] Angelika Neuwirth lists the factors that led to the emergence of the doctrine of I'jaz: The necessity of explaining some challenging verses in the Quran;[106] In the context of the emergence of the theory of "proofs of prophecy" (dâ'il an-nubûvva) in Islamic theology, proving that the Quran is a work worthy of the emphasized superior place of Muhammad in the history of the prophets, thus gaining polemical superiority over Jews and Christians; Preservation of Arab national pride in the face of confrontation with the Iranian Shu'ubiyya movement, etc.[107]

Manuscript of the Quran at the Brooklyn Museum

The emergence of the Qur’ān was an oral and aural

prophecies, with a few exceptions like the Byzantine victory over the Persians[112] in wars that continued for hundreds of years
with mutual victories and defeats.

In a different line; The miracle claim that the Quran was encrypted using the number 19 was put forward by Rashad Khalifa; The claim attracted criticism because it included claims against the integrity of the text, which is mostly accepted by Muslims, and the Khalifa was killed by his own student in an assassination[113] possibly organized by a Sunni radical group.[114]

In worship

Surah Al-Fatiha, the first chapter of the Quran, is recited in full in every rakat of salah and on other occasions. This surah, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited surah of the Quran:[11]

While standing in prayers, worshipers recite the first chapter of the Quran, al-Fatiha, followed by any other section.

Other sections of the Quran of choice are also read in daily prayers. Surah

Al-Ikhlāṣ is second in frequency of Qur'an recitation, for according to many early authorities, Muhammad said that Ikhlāṣ is equivalent to one-third of the whole Quran.[115]

Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims, and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran 56:79 ("none shall touch but those who are clean"), some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water (wudu or ghusl) before touching a copy of the Quran, although this view is not universal.[11] Worn-out copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water.[116]

In Islam, most intellectual disciplines, including Islamic theology, philosophy, mysticism and jurisprudence, have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings.[11] Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called ajr, thawab, or hasanat.[117]

In Islamic art

The Quran also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of calligraphy and illumination.[11] The Quran is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as mosque lamps, metal work, pottery and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums.

Contents

The Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of

prayer also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. Verses pertaining to natural phenomena have been interpreted by Muslims as an indication of the authenticity of the Quranic message.[118] The style of the Quran has been called "allusive", with commentaries needed to explain what is being referred to—"events are referred to, but not narrated; disagreements are debated without being explained; people and places are mentioned, but rarely named."[119]

Belqeys (the queen of Sheba) reclining in a garden, facing the hoopoe, Solomon's messenger. Persian miniature (c. 1595), tinted drawing on paper

Many places, subjects and mythological figures in the

Seven sleepers, Queen of Sheba
etc. However, some philosophers and scholars such as Mohammed Arkoun, who emphasize the mythological character of the language and content of the Quran, are met with rejectionist attitudes in Islamic circles.[121]

The stories of

occupy a wide place in the Quran.

Monotheism

The central theme of the Quran is monotheism. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (see, e.g., Quran 2:20, 2:29, 2:255). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (see, e.g., Quran 13:16, 2:253, 50:38, etc.). All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly.[41][118]

A 12th-century Quran manuscript at the Reza Abbasi Museum

The Quran uses cosmological and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God. Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?"[126][127]

In the Quran, as in the books of other

day of judgment. He has a throne to seat, (Ta-Ha:5) a pulpit [note 1] and servants, around (39:75
).

Whether an anthropomorphic language can be used about God has been the subject of intense debates in the history of Islamic thought. Because an anthropomorphic language about Allah would indicate

metaphorical; some of them perceived it literally, some of them preferred "not to comment", which they presented as the way of their the predecessors
.

Prophets

According to the Quran, God communicated with man and made his will known through signs and revelations.

Prophets, or 'Messengers of God', received revelations and delivered them to humanity. The message has been identical and for all humankind. "Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty."[129] The revelation does not come directly from God to the prophets. Angels acting as God's messengers deliver the divine revelation to them. This comes out in Quran 42:51, in which it is stated: "It is not for any mortal that God should speak to them, except by revelation, or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal by his permission whatsoever He will."[56][130]

Ethico-religious concepts

Verse about the month of Ramadan, second sura, verse 185. from a Quran manuscript dated to 1510
Verse about the month of Ramadan (second sura, verse 185) from a Quran manuscript dated to 1510

Belief is a fundamental aspect of morality in the Quran, and scholars have tried to determine the semantic contents of "belief" and "believer" in the Quran.

salat) and fasting in the month of Ramadan. As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration.[22][130] The term for charity, zakat, literally means purification. Charity, according to the Quran, is a means of self-purification.[91][133]

Eschatology

The doctrine of the last day and

suras such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and its preparations. Some suras indicate the closeness of the event and warn people to be prepared for the imminent day. For instance, the first verses of Sura 22, which deal with the mighty earthquake and the situations of people on that day, represent this style of divine address: "O People! Be respectful to your Lord. The earthquake of the Hour is a mighty thing."[136]

The Quran is often vivid in its depiction of what will happen at the end time. Watt describes the Quranic view of End Time:[41]

The climax of history, when the present world comes to an end, is referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction' (when the good are separated from the evil), 'the Day of the Gathering' (of men to the presence of God) or 'the Day of the Meeting' (of men with God). The Hour comes suddenly. It is heralded by a shout, by a thunderclap, or by the blast of a trumpet. A cosmic upheaval then takes place. The mountains dissolve into dust, the seas boil up, the sun is darkened, the stars fall and the sky is rolled up. God appears as Judge, but his presence is hinted at rather than described.… The central interest, of course, is in the gathering of all mankind before the Judge. Human beings of all ages, restored to life, join the throng. To the scoffing objection of the unbelievers that former generations had been dead a long time and were now dust and mouldering bones, the reply is that God is nevertheless able to restore them to life.

The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul, since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily resurrection.[130]

Encouragement for the sciences

The astrophysicist Nidhal Guessoum, while being highly critical of pseudo-scientific claims made about the Quran, has highlighted the encouragement for sciences that the Quran provides by developing "the concept of knowledge". He writes:[137]: 174 

The Qur'an draws attention to the danger of conjecturing without evidence (And follow not that of which you have not the knowledge of... 17:36) and in several different verses asks Muslims to require proofs (Say: Bring your proof if you are truthful 2:111).

Guessoum cites Ghaleb Hasan on the definition of "proof" according to the Quran being "clear and strong... convincing evidence or argument." Also, such a proof cannot rely on an argument from authority, citing verse 5:104. Lastly, both assertions and rejections require a proof, according to verse 4:174.[137]: 56  Ismail al-Faruqi and Taha Jabir Alalwani are of the view that any reawakening of the Muslim civilization must start with the Quran; however, the biggest obstacle on this route is the "centuries old heritage of tafseer (exegesis) and other classical disciplines" which inhibit a "universal, epidemiological and systematic conception" of the Quran's message.[137]: 117–8  The philosopher Muhammad Iqbal, considered the Quran's methodology and epistemology to be empirical and rational.[137]: 58–9 

There are around 750 verses[

which?] in the Quran dealing with natural phenomena. In many of these verses the study of nature is "encouraged and highly recommended", and historical Islamic scientists like Al-Biruni and Al-Battani derived their inspiration from verses of the Quran.[additional citation(s) needed] Mohammad Hashim Kamali has stated that "scientific observation, experimental knowledge and rationality" are the primary tools with which humanity can achieve the goals laid out for it in the Quran.[137]: 63  Ziauddin Sardar built a case for Muslims having developed the foundations of modern science, by highlighting the repeated calls of the Quran to observe and reflect upon natural phenomenon.[137]
: 75 

The physicist

Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Biruni as the pioneers of empiricism who introduced the experimental approach, breaking with Aristotle's influence and thus giving birth to modern science. Salam was also careful to differentiate between metaphysics and physics, and advised against empirically probing certain matters on which "physics is silent and will remain so," such as the doctrine of "creation from nothing" which in Salam's view is outside the limits of science and thus "gives way" to religious considerations.[137]
: 134 

Text and arrangement

The first sura of the Quran, Al-Fatiha, which consists of seven verses

The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, known as a

migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina. However, a sūrah classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Sūrah names are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters or words of the sūrah. Chapters are not arranged in chronological order, rather the chapters appear to be arranged roughly in order of decreasing size. Some scholars argue the sūrahs are arranged according to a certain pattern.[138] Each sūrah except the ninth starts with the Bismillah (بِسْمِ ٱللَّٰهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ), an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God.' There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the Bismillah in the Quran, due to its presence in Quran 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba.[139][140]

Each sūrah consists of verses, known as

Hafs Quran is 6,236;[xv]
however, the number varies if the bismillahs are counted separately.

In addition of the division into chapters, there are various ways of dividing Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30

ḥizb (plural aḥzāb), and each hizb subdivided into four rubʻ al-ahzab. The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, manzil (plural manāzil), for it to be recited in a week.[11]

A different structure is provided by semantic units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten āyāt each. Such a section is called a rukū`.

The

Qāf. The original significance of the letters is unknown. Tafsir (exegesis) has interpreted them as abbreviations for either names or qualities of God or for the names or content of the respective surahs. According to Rashad Khalifa, those letters are Quranic initials for a hypothetical mathematical code in the Quran, namely the Quran code[144] but this has been criticized by Bilal Philips as a hoax based on falsified data, misinterpretations of the Quran's text.[145]

According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 stems, 3,382 lemmas and 1,685 roots.[146]

Literary style

Boys studying the Quran in Touba, Senegal

The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the suras and verses employ

thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims[who?] assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.[147]

The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose" as it partakes of both poetry and prose; however, this description runs the risk of failing to convey the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan suras, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Sura 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.[148][149]

The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net.[11] The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to exhibit lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and repetitiousness.[xvi][xvii] Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression—its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase—is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated.[152][153] Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device.

A text is self-referential when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild, the Quran demonstrates this metatextuality by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self-referentiality is evident in those passages where the Quran refers to itself as revelation (tanzil), remembrance (dhikr), news (naba'), criterion (furqan) in a self-designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, "And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it?"),[154] or in the frequent appearance of the "Say" tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g., "Say: 'God's guidance is the true guidance'", "Say: 'Would you then dispute with us concerning God?'"). According to Wild the Quran is highly self-referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan suras.[155]

Interpretation

An early interpretation of Sura 108 of the Quran

The Quran has sparked much commentary and explication (tafsir), aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Quranic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance."[156]

Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Quran, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims.

Ubayy ibn Kaʻb, Zayd ibn Thaabit, Abu Moosaa al-Ash'ari, and 'Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr.[158] Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (hadith) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.[156]

Because the Quran is spoken in

abrogating" (nāsikh) the earlier text (mansūkh).[159][160] Other scholars, however, maintain that no abrogation has taken place in the Quran.[161]

There have been several commentaries of the Quran by scholars of all denominations, popular ones include Tafsir

Bediüzzaman Said Nursi
.

Esoteric interpretation

Esoteric or Sufi interpretation attempts to unveil the inner meanings of the Quran. Sufism moves beyond the apparent (zahir) point of the verses and instead relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (batin) and metaphysical dimensions of consciousness and existence.[162] According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, they are allusions (isharat) rather than explanations (tafsir). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of each writer.[163]

Sufi interpretation, according to Annabel Keeler, also exemplifies the use of the theme of love, as for instance can be seen in Qushayri's interpretation of the Quran:

When Moses came at the appointed time and his Lord spoke to him, he asked, "My Lord! Reveal Yourself to me so I may see You." Allah answered, "You cannot see Me! But look at the mountain. If it remains firm in its place, only then will you see Me." When his Lord appeared to the mountain, He levelled it to dust and Moses collapsed unconscious. When he recovered, he cried, "Glory be to You! I turn to You in repentance and I am the first of the believers."

— Quran 7:143

Moses, in 7:143, comes the way of those who are in love, he asks for a vision but his desire is denied, he is made to suffer by being commanded to look at other than the Beloved while the mountain is able to see God. The mountain crumbles and Moses faints at the sight of God's manifestation upon the mountain. In Qushayri's words, Moses came like thousands of men who traveled great distances, and there was nothing left to Moses of Moses. In that state of annihilation from himself, Moses was granted the unveiling of the realities. From the Sufi point of view, God is the always the beloved and the wayfarer's longing and suffering lead to realization of the truths.[164]

Men reading the Quran at the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria

Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, ta'wil indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (tanzil), as opposed to ta'wil, is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of ta'wil, which originally meant 'to return' or 'the returning place'. In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse—rather it transpires through that meaning, in a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality—which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute—and then there is an actual significance that a Quranic story refers to.[165][166]

Shia Muslim girls reciting the Quran placed atop folding lecterns (rehal) during Ramadan in Qom, Iran

According to Shia beliefs, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like Muhammad and the imams know the secrets of the Quran. According to Tabatabaei, the statement "none knows its interpretation except God" remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause.[167] Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Quran's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Quran to a certain extent.[166]

According to

ta'wil refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to God and can not be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to God. Unacceptable ta'wil is where one "transfers" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable ta'wil has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Quranic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.[166][168]

History of Sufi commentaries

One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is Sulami (d. 1021) without whose work the majority of very early Sufi commentaries would not have been preserved. Sulami's major commentary is a book named Haqaiq al-Tafsir ('Truths of Exegesis') which is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d. 1074), Daylami (d. 1193), Shirazi (d. 1209) and Suhrawardi (d. 1234). These works include material from Sulami's books plus the author's contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Maybudi (d. 1135) kashf al-asrar ('the unveiling of the secrets').[162] Rumi (d. 1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book Mathnawi. Rumi makes heavy use of the Quran in his poetry, a feature that is sometimes omitted in translations of Rumi's work. A large number of Quranic passages can be found in Mathnawi, which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran. Rumi's book is not exceptional for containing citations from and elaboration on the Quran, however, Rumi does mention Quran more frequently.[169] Simnani (d. 1336) wrote two influential works of esoteric exegesis on the Quran. He reconciled notions of God's manifestation through and in the physical world with the sentiments of Sunni Islam.[170] Comprehensive Sufi commentaries appear in the 18th century such as the work of Ismail Hakki Bursevi (d. 1725). His work ruh al-Bayan ('the Spirit of Elucidation') is a voluminous exegesis. Written in Arabic, it combines the author's own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali).[170]

Levels of meaning

9th-century Quran in the Reza Abbasi Museum
An 11th-century North African Quran at the British Museum

Unlike the Salafis, Shias and Sunnis as well as some other Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect.[171]: 7  For them, it is an essential idea that the Quran also has inward aspects. Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back to Muhammad:

The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth).[171]: 7 

According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body.[172] Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in Islamic philosophy, because gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.[171]: 13 

Commentaries dealing with the

Zahiris, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning.[173][174]

Reappropriation

Reappropriation is the name of the

hermeneutical style of some ex-Muslims who have converted to Christianity. Their style or reinterpretation can sometimes be geared towards apologetics, with less reference to the Islamic scholarly tradition that contextualizes and systematizes the reading (e.g., by identifying some verses as abrogated). This tradition of interpretation draws on the following practices: grammatical renegotiation, renegotiation of textual preference, retrieval, and concession.[175]

Translations

Translating the Quran has always been problematic and difficult. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form.[176] Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.[177]

Nevertheless, the Quran has been translated into most African, Asian, and European languages.[70] The first translator of the Quran was Salman the Persian, who translated surat al-Fatiha into Persian during the seventh century.[178] Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 in Alwar (Sindh, India, now Pakistan) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.[179]

The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in

Najm al-Din Abu Hafs al-Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian.[180] The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times.[citation needed
]

Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor

received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran.[177] In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.[citation needed
]

In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known.

Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.[181]

Robert of Ketton's 1143 translation of the Quran for Peter the Venerable, Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete, was the first into a Western language (Latin).[182]

Muhammad Abdel Haleem, The Clear Quran by Mustafa Khattab, Sahih International
's translation, among various others.

As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, Abdullah Yusuf Ali and Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular ye and thou instead of the more common you.[183]

The oldest Gurmukhi translation of the Quran Sharif has been found in village Lande of Moga district of Punjab which was printed in 1911.[184]

  • 1091 Quranic text in bold script with Persian translation and commentary in a lighter script[185]
    1091 Quranic text in bold script with Persian translation and commentary in a lighter script[185]
  • Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era
    Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era
  • The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: L'Alcoran de Mahomet, André du Ryer, 1647
    The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: L'Alcoran de Mahomet, André du Ryer, 1647
  • Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran
    Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran
  • Verses 33 and 34 of surat Yā Sīn in this Chinese translation of the Quran
    Verses 33 and 34 of surat
    Yā Sīn
    in this Chinese translation of the Quran

Recitation

Rules of recitation

The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named tajwid which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to elisions, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels (the articulation of the Quranic phonemes), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.[186]

In order to avoid incorrect pronunciation, reciters follow a program of training with a qualified teacher. The two most popular texts used as references for tajwid rules are Matn al-Jazariyyah by Ibn al-Jazari[187] and Tuhfat al-Atfal by Sulayman al-Jamzuri.

The recitations of a few Egyptian reciters, like

Abdul Basit, Mustafa Ismail, were highly influential in the development of current styles of recitation.[188][189][190]: 83  Southeast Asia is well known for world-class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as Maria Ulfah of Jakarta.[186] Today, crowds fill auditoriums for public Quran recitation competitions.[191][14]

There are two types of recitation:

  1. Murattal is at a slower pace, used for study and practice.
  2. Mujawwad refers to a slow recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the mujawwad reciter seeks to involve the listeners.[192]

Variant readings

Page of the Quran with vocalization marks

Vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds (tashkeel) were introduced into the text of the Qur'an during the lifetimes of the last Sahabah.[193] The first Quranic manuscripts lacked these marks, enabling multiple possible recitations to be conveyed by the same written text. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from Baghdad, Ibn Mujāhid, is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th-century readers from the cities of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Damascus. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers, rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven ahruf (meaning seven letters or modes). Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ (d. 796) and Warsh (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud (Kufa, d. 745) and Nafi' al-Madani (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard Quran of Cairo uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation, the 8th-century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran.[56][75]

The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant.[194][195] According to Melchert (2008), the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line.[196]

Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes, including internal vowels, long vowels,

assimilation and alternation.[197]

Occasionally, an early Quran shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn Amir ad-Dimashqi.[198] Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of himsi region.[199]

Writing and printing

Writing

Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by

Nastaʻlīq style was also rarely used in Persian world.[200][201]

In the beginning, the Quran was not written with dots or tashkeel. These features were added to the text during the lifetimes of the last of the Sahabah.[193] Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or juzʼ. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.[202][203]

Whilst the majority of Islamic scribes were men, some women also worked as scholars and copyists; one such woman who made a copy of this text was the Moroccan jurist, Amina, bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif.[204]

  • Folio from the "Blue" Quran at the Brooklyn Museum
    Folio from the "Blue" Quran at the Brooklyn Museum
  • Kufic script, eighth or ninth century
    Kufic script, eighth or ninth century
  • Maghribi script, 13th–14th centuries
    Maghribi script, 13th–14th centuries
  • Muhaqqaq script, 14th–15th centuries
    Muhaqqaq script, 14th–15th centuries
  • Shikasta nastaliq script, 18th–19th centuries
    Shikasta nastaliq script, 18th–19th centuries

Printing

Quran divided into six books, published by Dar Ibn Kathir, Damascus-Beirut

Wood-block printing of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century.[205]

Arabic

Ludovico Maracci in Padua in 1698 with Latin translation and commentary.[211]

Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from

Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1726—initially, even on penalty of death.[212][203][213] The Ottoman ban on printing in Arabic script was lifted in 1726 for non-religious texts only upon the request of Ibrahim Muteferrika, who printed his first book in 1729. Except for books in Hebrew and European languages, which were unrestricted, very few books, and no religious texts, were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century.[xviii]

In 1786, Catherine the Great of Russia, sponsored a printing press for "Tatar and Turkish orthography" in Saint Petersburg, with one Mullah Osman Ismail responsible for producing the Arabic types. A Quran was printed with this press in 1787, reprinted in 1790 and 1793 in Saint Petersburg, and in 1803 in Kazan.[xix] The first edition printed in Iran appeared in Tehran (1828), a translation in Turkish was printed in Cairo in 1842, and the first officially sanctioned Ottoman edition was finally printed in Constantinople between 1875 and 1877 as a two-volume set, during the First Constitutional Era.[216][217]

edition of the Quran in 1924. This edition was the result of a long preparation, as it standardized Quranic orthography, and it remains the basis of later editions.[200]

Criticism

Regarding the claim of divine origin, critics refer to preexisting sources, not only taken from the Bible, supposed to be older revelations of God, but also from

Manichaean, a dualistic religion believing in two eternal forces, influences on the Quran. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has a program that will rewrite the Quran, and have also banned Quran mobile apps.[219][220]

Relationship with other literature

Page from a Quran ('Umar-i Aqta'). Iran, Afghanistan, Timurid dynasty, c. 1400. Opaque watercolor, ink and gold on paper in the Muqaqqaq script. 170 by 109 centimetres (67 in × 43 in). Historical region: Uzbekistan.

Some non-Muslim groups such as the Baháʼí Faith and Druze view the Quran as holy. In the Baháʼí Faith, the Quran is accepted as authentic revelation from God along with the revelations of the other world religions, Islam being a stage within the divine process of progressive revelation. Bahá'u'lláh, the Prophet-Founder of the Baháʼí Faith, testified to the validity of the Quran, writing, say: "Perused ye not the Qur'án? Read it, that haply ye may find the Truth, for this Book is verily the Straight Path. This is the Way of God unto all who are in the heavens and all who are on the earth."[221] Unitarian Universalists may also seek inspiration from the Quran. It has been suggested that the Quran has some narrative similarities to the Diatessaron, Protoevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel.[222][223] One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a gospel harmony, may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.[224]

The Bible

He has revealed to you ˹O Prophet˺ the Book in truth, confirming what came before it, as He revealed the Torah and the Gospel previously, as a guide for people, and ˹also˺ revealed the Standard ˹to distinguish between right and wrong˺.[225]

— 3:3-4

The Quran attributes its relationship with former books (the Torah and the Gospels) to their unique origin, saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.[226]

According to

Christoph Luxenberg (in The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran) the Quran's language was similar to the Syriac language.[227] The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual.[228] Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad (by name—Muhammad is often alluded to as "The Prophet" or "The Apostle"), while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than in the New Testament.[229]

Arab writing

After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form.[70] The Arabic grammarian Sibawayh wrote one of the earliest books on Arabic grammar, referred to as "Al-Kitab", which relied heavily on the language in the Quran. Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago, and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University, state that the Quran exerted a particular influence on Arabic literature's diction, themes, metaphors, motifs and symbols and added new expressions and new meanings to old, pre-Islamic words that would become ubiquitous.[230]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ The English pronunciation varies: /kəˈrɑːn/, /-ˈræn/, /kɔː-/, /k-/;[1] especially with the spelling quran /kʊrˈɑːn/, /-ˈræn/;[2] especially in British English /kɒrˈɑːn/.[3][4]
  2. transcribed phonemically as /al.qurˈʔaːn/. The actual pronunciation in Literary Arabic varies regionally. The first vowel varies from [o] to [ʊ], while the second vowel varies from [æ] to [a] to [ɑ
    ]
    . For example, the pronunciation in Egypt is [qorˈʔɑːn] and in Central East Arabia [qʊrˈʔæːn].
  3. vocalized Arabic: ٱلْقُرْآن, Quranic Arabic: ٱلۡقُرۡءَان, al-Qurʾān [alqurˈʔaːn],[ii]
    lit.'the recitation' or 'the lecture'
  4. ^ (English spelling) The form Alcoran (and its variants) was usual before the 19th century when it became obsolete.[5][6] The form Koran was most predominant from the second half of the 18th century till the 1980s, when it has been superseded by either Qur'an or Quran.[6][7][8][9] Other transliterations include al-Coran, Coran, Kuran and al-Qur'an. The adjectives vary as well and include Koranic, Quranic and Qur'anic (sometimes in lowercase).[10]
  5. ^ "Few have failed to be convinced that the Quran is the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."[24]
  6. ^ In a small number of denominations, only the Quran is used as a source, an approach called Quranism.
  7. ^ Hadith are primarily from Muhammad but some are from those closest to him. Muslim scholars have worked carefully to authenticate them; see Hadith studies#Evaluating authenticity.
  8. ^ According to Welch in the Encyclopedia of Islam, the verses pertaining to the usage of the word hikma should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that "Muhammad is to judge (tahkum) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him."
  9. ^ "God's Apostle replied, 'Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says.' ʻAisha added: Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the Sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."[44]
  10. ^ "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."[24]
  11. ^ There is some disagreement among early Muslim sources disagree over who was the first to collect the narrations. At least one source credits Salim, the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah with collecting the Qur'an into a mushaf: "It is reported... from Ibn Buraidah who said:

    The first of those to collect the Qur'an into a mushaf (codex) was Salim, the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah.[59]

  12. ^ For example:
    • "We have, without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will assuredly guard it (from corruption)" (15:9)
    "It is a miracle of the Qur'an that no change has occurred in a single word, a single [letter of the] alphabet, a single punctuation mark, or a single diacritical mark in the text of the Qur'an during the last fourteen centuries." [60]
    • Among the things that make the Quran "a miracle and that supplements the idea or belief that Islam is the true religion. This unique feature of Quran is its protected nature where there has not been even a single change in the syllable in which it was revealed. The lines below discuss how the protected nature of Quran stands as an evidence for Islam being the true divine belief.
    "We have, without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will assuredly guard it (from corruption)" (15:9)[61]
    • "The Quran is unique because it is the only revealed book that exists today in the precise form and content in which it was originally revealed.[62]
  13. ^ For both the claim that variant readings are still transmitted and the claim that no such critical edition has been produced, see Gilliot, C., "Creation of a fixed text" [77]
  14. ^ professor emeritus of Islamic thought at the University of Paris, Algerian Mohammed Arkoun.[98]
  15. ^ Scholars disagree on the exact number but this is a disagreement over "the placing of the divisions between the verese, not on the text itself."[141]
  16. ^ "The final process of collection and codification of the Quran text was guided by one over-arching principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Quran disorganized, repetitive and very difficult to read."[150]
  17. ^ Samuel Pepys: "One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Quran as a Book written in Heaven, too good for the Earth; as a well-written book, or indeed as a book at all; and not a bewildered rhapsody; written, so far as writing goes, as badly as almost any book ever was!" [151]
  18. ^ "the major Ottoman printing houses published a combined total of only 142 books in more than a century of printing between 1727 and 1838. When taken in conjunction with the fact that only a minuscule number of copies of each book were printed, this statistic demonstrates that the introduction of the printing press did not transform Ottoman cultural life until the emergence of vibrant print media in the middle of the nineteenth century" [214]
  19. ^ "at imperial expense, a 'Tatar and Turkish Typography' was established in St. Petersburg; a domestic scholar, Mullah Osman Ismail, was responsible for the manufacture of the types. One of the first products of this printing house was the Qur'ān. Through the doctor and writer, Johann Georg v. Zimmermann (d. 1795), who was befriended by Catherine II, a copy of the publication arrived in the Göttingen University library. Its director, the philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne (d. 1812), presented the work immediately in the Göttingische Anzeigen von gelehrten Sachen (28 July 1788); therein he pointed especially to the beauty of the Arabic types. To the Arabic text marginal glosses have been added that consist predominantly of reading variants. The imprint was reproduced unchanged in 1790 and 1793 in St. Petersburg (cf. Schnurrer, Bibliotheca arabica, no. 384); later, after the transfer of the printing house to Kazan, editions appeared in different formats and with varying presentation [215] For the 1803 Kazan edition: Chauvin, V.C. Bib. des ouvrages arabes, vol. X, 95; Schnurrer, C.F. von. Bibliotheca Arabica, 385. Original held by Bayerische Staatsbibliothek – Munich, Germany, shelfmark BSB A.or.554.
  1. ^ can often be translated as chair

Citations

  1. ^ dictionary.reference.com: koran
  2. ^ dictionary.reference.com: quran
  3. ^ Cambridge dictionary: koran
  4. ^ Cambridge dictionary: quran
  5. ^ "Alcoran". Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 1888. p. 210.
  6. ^ a b "Google Books Ngram Viewer". Google Books. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  7. ^ "Koran". Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. 5 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 1901. p. 753.
  8. ^ "Koran". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  9. ^ "Quran". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  10. ^ "Koran". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Nasr 2007
  12. ISBN 0-684-82507-4. It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)[clarification needed
    ]
  13. . Muslims believe that Muhammad's many divine encounters during his years in Mecca and Medina inspired the remainder of the Qur'an, which, nearly fourteen centuries later, remains the Arabic language's preeminent masterpiece.
  14. ^ . Throughout history, many Arab Christians as well have regarded it as the perfection of the Arabic language and literature.
  15. ^ Surah Al-Qadr 97
  16. ^
    I. B. Tauris Publishers
    . p. 338.
  17. ^ Quran 17:106
  18. .
  19. ^ Carroll, Jill. "The Quran & Hadith". World Religions. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
  20. ^ Patton, Ibn Ḥanbal and the Miḥna, 1897: p.54
  21. ^ a b Donner, Fred (2006). "The historical context". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–33.
  22. ^ .
  23. ^ Warraq I, et al. Warraq I (ed.). "The Origins of the Koran: Classic Essays on Islam's Holy Book". The Christian response to the Muslim debate. Summarised by Sharon Morad, Leeds. Archived from the original on 18 May 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  24. ^ a b Peters 1991, pp. 3–5
  25. ^ https://www.al-islam.org/quran-its-protection-alteration-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/some-ahadith-omission
  26. .
  27. .
  28. ^ Nasr 2003, p. 42
  29. ^ .
  30. Street, Brian V.
    (2001). Literacy and Development: Ethnographic Perspectives. p. 193.
  31. .
  32. .
  33. ^ "The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon". Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  34. ^ Quran 75:17
  35. ^ Quran 7:204
  36. ^ See "Ķur'an, al-", Encyclopedia of Islam Online and 9:111
  37. ^ Quran 20:2 cf.
  38. ^ Quran 25:32 cf.
  39. .
  40. ^ Tabatabae 1988, p. 98
  41. ^ .
  42. ^ .
  43. .
  44. ^ "Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 1". Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. University of Southern California. Archived from the original on 10 January 2012.
  45. ^ Quran 53:5
  46. ^ Quran 53:6-9
  47. .
  48. ^ Quran 7:157
  49. .
  50. .
  51. ^ "Wat is de Koran?". Koran.nl (in Dutch). 18 February 2016.
  52. ^ Cook 2000, p. 121.
  53. ^ a b c Tabatabae 1988, p. 99:

    Since the word of God seemed threatened with alteration, the [third] caliph ordered that five of the qurrā' from amongst the companions, (one of them being Zayd ibn Thābit who had compiled the first volume), produce other copies from the first volume which had been prepared on the orders of the first caliph and which had been kept with Ḥafṣah, the wife of the Prophet and daughter of the second caliph.

    The other copies, already in the hands of Muslims in other areas, were collected and sent to Medina where, on orders of the Caliph, they were burnt (or, according to some historians, were destroyed by boiling). Thus several copies were made, one being kept in Medina, one in Mecca, and one each sent to Sham (a territory now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan), Kufa and Basra.

    It is said that beside these five, one copy was also sent to Yemen and one to Bahrein. These copies were called the Imam copies and served as original for all future copies. The only difference of order between these copies and the first volume was that the chapters "Spirits of War" and "Immunity" were written in one place between "The Heights" and "Jonah."

  54. ^ al-Bukhari, Muhammad. "Sahih Bukhari, volume 6, book 61, narrations number 509 and 510". sahih-bukhari.com. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
  55. ^ Cook 2000, p. 117.
  56. ^ a b c Rippin 2006:
    • "Poetry and Language", by Navid Kermani, pp. 107–20.
    • For the history of compilation see "Introduction," by Tamara Sonn, pp. 5–6
    • For eschatology, see "Discovering (final destination)", by Christopher Buck, p. 30.
    • For literary structure, see "Language," by Mustansir Mir, p. 93.
    • For writing and printing, see "Written Transmission", by François Déroche, pp. 172–87.
    • For recitation, see "Recitation," by Anna M. Gade pp. 481–93
  57. ^ Yusuff, Mohamad K. "Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur'an".
  58. ^ Cook 2000, pp. 117–124.
  59. ^ John Gilchrist, Jam' Al-Qur'an. The Codification of the Qur'an Text A Comprehensive Study of the Original Collection of the Qur'an Text and the Early Surviving Qur'an Manuscripts, [MERCSA, Mondeor, 2110 Republic of South Africa, 1989], Chapter 1. "The Initial Collection of the Qur'an Text", citing as-Suyuti, Al-Itqan fii Ulum al-Qur'an, p. 135).
  60. ^ Mazhar Kazi (1997). 130 Evident Miracles in the Qur'an. Richmond Hill: Crescent Publishing House. pp. 42–43.
  61. ^ "Islam Is True Divine Belief Because Of Protected Quran". quran reading. 17 August 2014.
  62. ^ "The Origin of the Quran" (PDF). October 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
  63. ^ "Noorullah Website - Is the Qur'an Corrupted? Shi'ites View". 27 October 2009. Archived from the original on 27 October 2009.
  64. ^ Shirazi, Muhammad (2001). The Qur'an - When was it compiled?. London,UK: Fountain Books. pp. 5, 7.
  65. ^ Shirazi, Muhammad (2008). The Shi'a and their Beliefs. London,UK: Fountain Books. p. 29.
  66. ^ HADDADIAN ABDORREZA; MOADDAB SEYYED REZA. "A STUDY ON TRADITIONS OF DISTORTION IN AYYASHI EXEGESIS". Hadith Studies. 4 (8): 141–166.
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  69. ^ Kohlberg & Amir-Moezzi 2009, pp.20, 24
  70. ^ .
  71. higher criticism
    of the Quran."
  72. ^ Egypt's culture wars: politics and practice – Page 278 Samia Mehrez – 2008 Middle East report: Issues 218–222; Issues 224–225 Middle East Research & Information Project, JSTOR (Organization) – 2001 Shahine filed to divorce Abu Zayd from his wife, on the grounds that Abu Zayd's textual criticism of the Quran made him an apostate, and hence unfit to marry a Muslim. Abu Zayd and his wife eventually relocated to the Netherlands
  73. ^ Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008: p.30
  74. .
  75. ^ .
  76. ^ Gilliot, C. (2006). "Creation of a fixed text". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān. Cambridge University Press. p. 52.
  77. .
  78. .
  79. .
  80. ^ Lester, Toby (January 1999). "What Is the Koran?". Atlantic. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
  81. ^ a b Coughlan, Sean. "'Oldest' Koran fragments found in Birmingham University". BBC. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  82. ^ Dan Bilefsky (22 July 2015). "A Find in Britain: Quran Fragments Perhaps as Old as Islam". New York Times. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
  83. ^ Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63, gives 8 June 632, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier (mainly non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the invasion of Palestine. See Stephen J. Shoemaker, The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad's Life and the Beginnings of Islam,[page needed] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.
  84. ^ "New Light on the History of the Quranic Text?". The Huffington Post. 24 July 2015. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
  85. .
  86. ]
  87. ^ See:
  88. ^ Jenssen, H. (2001). "Arabic Language". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill. pp. 127–35.
  89. ^ .
  90. ^ Quran 85:22
  91. ^ a b Guillaume, Islam, 1954: p.74
  92. ^ Pickthall, M.M. (1981). The Glorious Qur'an. Chicago IL: Iqra' Book Center. p. vii.
  93. ^ Ibn Warraq, Why I'm Not a Muslim, 1995: p.105
  94. . Retrieved 28 February 2019.
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  96. ^ LESTER, TOBY (January 1999). "What Is the Koran?". Atlantic. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  97. ISSN 0591-2385
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  98. ^ SARDAR, ZIAUDDIN (21 August 2008). "Weird science". New Statesman. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
  99. ^ Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). The Qur'an: an encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 9780415326391
  100. ^ For example see comments by Arthur John Arberry: "to produce something which might be accepted as echoing however faintly the sublime rhetoric of the Arabic Koran, I have been at pains to study the intricate and richly varied rhythms which constitute the Koran's undeniable claim to rank amongst the greatest literary masterpieces of mankind Arberry, A.J (1955). The Koran: Interpreted. New York: Macmillan. pp. x; Karen Armstrong : "It is as though Muhammad had created an entirely new literary form that some people were not ready for but which thrilled others. Without this experience of the Koran, it is extremely unlikely that Islam would have taken root." Armstrong, K (1994). A History of God.p.78; Oliver Leaman: "the verses of the Qur'an represent its uniqueness and beauty not to mention its novelty and originality. That is why it has succeeded in convincing so many people of its truth. it imitates nothing and no one nor can it be imitated. Its style does not pall even after long periods of study and the text does not lose its freshness over time" Leaman, Oliver (2006). The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia.p.404 and similar views by Joseph Schacht (1974) The legacy of Islam, Henry Stubbe An account of the Rise and Progress of Mohammadanism (1911), Martin Zammit A Comparative Lexical Study of Qur'anic Arabic (2002), and Alfred Guillaume Islam (1990)
  101. ^ .
  102. ^ Vgl. Martin 533
  103. ^ Larkin, Margaret (1988). "The Inimitability of the Qur'an: Two Perspectives". Religion & Literature. 20 (1): 31–47.
  104. ^ Quran 17:88
  105. ^ Vgl. Neuwirth 172-175.
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  107. ^ https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/75126557/Siddiqui2018PoetryProphecyAndTheAngelicVoice.pdf
  108. ^ https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/bitstream/123456789/51535/1/Humanitas2A7.pdf
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  110. ^ https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/341691
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  114. ^ "Afghan Quran-burning protests: What's the right way to dispose of a Quran?". Slate Magazine. 22 February 2012.
  115. ^ Sengers, Erik (2005). Dutch and Their Gods. p. 129.
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  117. ^ Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Mohammed?". Open Democracy. Retrieved 3 October 2019.
  118. .
  119. ^ After examining the verses of the Quran to find where the word mythology has been used and seeking the accordance between the meaning and context with Quran’s purpose of knowledge and guidance, including rules and educational issues, we found that the concept of myth is not acceptable in the Quran. The result of this study show that Quran is not a myth, rather the stories are factual and based on reality. https://www.iasj.net/iasj/download/194df3cf9e25bbef
  120. ^ Watt 1960–2007: "It is generally agreed both by Muslim commentators and modéra [sic] occidental scholars that Dhu ’l-Ḳarnayn [...] is to be identified with Alexander the Great." Cook 2013: "[...] Dhū al-Qarnayn (usually identified with Alexander the Great) [...]".
  121. . Many Mediaeval scholars argued against the identification, though. Cf., e.g., the discussion in al-Maqrizi, Khabar §§212-232.
  122. .
  123. . In the early history of Islam there was a lively debate over the true identity of Dhū 'l-Qarnayn. One prominent identification was with an ancient South Arabian Ḥimyarī king, generally referred to in the sources as al-Ṣaʿb b. Dhī Marāthid. [...] Indeed the association of Dhū 'l-Qarnayn with the South Arabian ruler can be traced in many early Arabic sources.
  124. ^ Quran 67:3
  125. .
  126. ^ Williams, W. Wesley, "A study of anthropomorphic theophany and Visio Dei in the Hebrew Bible, the Qur'an and early Sunni Islam", University of Michigan, March 2009
  127. ^ Quran 41:43
  128. ^ .
  129. .
  130. ^ Quran 2:274
  131. ^ Quran 9:103
  132. .
  133. .
  134. .
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  136. .
  137. ^ See:* "Kur`an, al-", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
  138. ^ Allen 2000, p. 53.
  139. ^ Cook 2000, p. 119.
  140. ^ مقطعات is the plural of a participle from قطع, 'to cut, break'.
  141. ^ .
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  154. ^ Quran 2:151
  155. ^ بازمول, محمد. التهذيب والترتيب الاتقان في علوم القرآن. p. 525.
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    • "Recitation," by Anna M. Gade, pp. 481–93
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  • .
  • .
  • .
  • .
  • ^ .
  • .
  • .
  • ^ .
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  • ^ Krek 1979, p. 203
  • ^ "Saudi Aramco World: East Meets West in Venice". archive.aramcoworld.com. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
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  • ^ "Paganini Quran". Madain Project. Archived from the original on 6 May 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
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  • ^ "Alcorani textus universus ex correctioribus Arabum exemplaribus summa fide, atque pulcherrimis characteribus descriptus, vol. 2, p. i". Columbia University Libraries Online Exhibitions. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
  • .
  • ^ Watson 1968, p. 435; Clogg 1979, p. 67
  • ^ Hanioğlu, Şükrü (2010). A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire. Princeton University Press.
  • .
  • .
  • .
  • ^ Quran 25:5
  • ^ "China removed popular Quran apps, with one million Chinese users; BBC". Business Insider.
  • ^ "China to rewrite Quran, Bible amid crackdown on Uighur minority". ahvalnews.com. 25 December 2019.
  • ^ "The Kitáb-i-Íqán". Bahá'í Reference Library. Retrieved 6 August 2021.
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  • The Catholic University of America
    . 1967. p. 677.
  • .
  • ^ 3:3 نزل عليك الكتاب بالحق مصدقا لما بين يديه وانزل التوراة والانجيل
  • ^ Quran 2:285
  • .
  • .
  • . Christians are often surprised to discover that Jesus is mentioned by name in the Quran more than Muhammad and that Mary is mentioned more times in the Quran than in the New Testament. Both Jesus and Mary play important roles not only in the Quran but also in Muslim piety and spirituality.
  • .
  • Sources

    Further reading

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    Topical studies

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