RDX
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RDX crystal
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Names | |||
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Preferred IUPAC name
1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-triazinane | |||
Other names
1,3,5-Trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine
RDX cyclonite, hexogen 1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane 1,3,5-Trinitrohexahydro-s-triazine Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-s-triazine Trimethylenetrinitramine hexolite[1] | |||
Identifiers | |||
3D model (
JSmol ) |
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ChEBI | |||
ChemSpider | |||
ECHA InfoCard
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100.004.092 | ||
PubChem CID
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UNII | |||
UN number | 0072, 0391, 0483 | ||
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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Properties | |||
C3H6N6O6 | |||
Molar mass | 222.117 g·mol−1 | ||
Appearance | Colorless or yellowish crystals | ||
Density | 1.806 g/cm3[2] | ||
Melting point | 205.5 °C (401.9 °F; 478.6 K) | ||
Boiling point | 234 °C (453 °F; 507 K) | ||
insoluble [3] | |||
Explosive data | |||
Shock sensitivity | Low | ||
Friction sensitivity | Low | ||
Detonation velocity | 8750 m/s | ||
RE factor
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1.60 | ||
Hazards | |||
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH): | |||
Main hazards
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Explosive, detonates on contact with mercury fulminate,[3] highly toxic
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GHS labelling: | |||
Danger | |||
H201, H301, H370, H373 | |||
P210, P250, P280, P370, P372, P373, P501 | |||
NFPA 704 (fire diamond) | |||
Flash point | Explosive [3] | ||
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC): | |||
LD50 (median dose)
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100 mg/kg | ||
NIOSH (US health exposure limits): | |||
PEL (Permissible)
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none [3] | ||
REL (Recommended)
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TWA 1.5 mg/m3 ST 3 mg/m3 [skin][3] | ||
IDLH (Immediate danger) |
N.D.[3] | ||
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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RDX (abbreviation of "Research Department eXplosive" or Royal Demolition eXplosive) or hexogen,
RDX is often used in mixtures with other explosives and
Name
RDX is also less commonly known as cyclonite, hexogen (particularly in Russian, French, German and German-influenced languages), T4, and, chemically, as cyclotrimethylene trinitramine.
Usage
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2021) |
RDX was widely used during
RDX is believed to have been used in many bomb plots, including
RDX is the base for a number of common military explosives:
- Composition A: Granular explosive consisting of RDX and plasticizing wax, such as composition A-3 (91% RDX coated with 9% wax)[11] and composition A-5 (98.5 to 99.1% RDX coated with 0.95 to 1.54% stearic acid).[12]
- desensitizer.[13]
- Composition C: The original composition C was used in World War II, but there have been subsequent variations including C-2, C-3, and C-4. C-4 consists of RDX (91%); a plasticizer, dioctyl sebacate (5.3%); and a binder, which is usually polyisobutylene (2.1%); and oil (1.6%).[14]
- DBX (Depth Bomb Explosive): Castable mixture consisting of 21% RDX, 21% ammonium nitrate, 40% TNT, and 18% powdered aluminium, developed during World War II, it was to be used in underwater munitions as a substitute for Torpex employing only half the amount of then-scarce RDX,[2][16] as the supply of RDX became more adequate, however, the mixture was shelved
- Cyclotol: Castable mixture of RDX (50–80%) with TNT (20–50%) designated by the amount of RDX/TNT, such as Cyclotol 70/30
- HBX: Castable mixtures of RDX, TNT, powdered aluminium, and D-2 wax with calcium chloride
- phlegmatizing agent)
- PBX: RDX is also used as a major component of many polymer-bonded explosives (PBX); RDX-based PBXs typically consist of RDX and at least thirteen different polymer/co-polymer binders.[17] Examples of RDX-based PBX formulations include, but are not limited to: PBX-9007, PBX-9010, PBX-9205, PBX-9407, PBX-9604, PBXN-106, PBXN-3, PBXN-6, PBXN-10, PBXN-201, PBX-0280, PBX Type I, PBXC-116, PBXAF-108, etc.[citation needed]
- PETN as major energetic components [18]
- Torpex: 42% RDX, 40% TNT, and 18% powdered aluminium; the mixture was designed during World War II and used mainly in underwater ordnance [19]
Outside military applications, RDX is also used in controlled demolition to raze structures.[20] The demolition of the Jamestown Bridge in the U.S. state of Rhode Island was one instance where RDX shaped charges were used to remove the span.[21]
Synthesis
RDX is classified by chemists as a
This nitrolysis reaction also produces bis-oxadiazole, ammonium nitrate, and water as by-products. The overall reaction is:[22]
- C6H12N4 + 10 HNO3 → C3H6N6O6 + 3 CH2(ONO2)2 + NH4NO3 + 3 H2O
Modern syntheses employ hexahydro triacyl triazine as it avoids formation of HMX.[23]
History
RDX was used by both sides in
Germany
RDX was reported in 1898 by Georg Friedrich Henning, who obtained a
During World War II, Germany used the code names W Salt, SH Salt, K-method, the E-method, and the KA-method. These names represented the identities of the developers of the various chemical routes to RDX. The W-method was developed by Wolfram in 1934 and gave RDX the code name "W-Salz". It used sulfamic acid, formaldehyde, and nitric acid.[31] SH-Salz (SH salt) was from Schnurr, who developed a batch-process in 1937–38 based on nitrolysis of hexamine.[32] The K-method, from Knöffler, involved addition of ammonium nitrate to the hexamine/nitric acid process.[33] The E-method, developed by Ebele, proved to be identical to the Ross and Schiessler process described below.[34] The KA-method, also developed by Knöffler, turned out to be identical to the Bachmann process described below.[35]
The explosive shells fired by the
UK
In the United Kingdom (UK), RDX was manufactured from 1933 by the research department in a pilot plant at the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich, London, a larger pilot plant being built at the RGPF Waltham Abbey just outside London in 1939.[37][38] In 1939 a twin-unit industrial-scale plant was designed to be installed at a new 700-acre (280 ha) site, ROF Bridgwater, away from London and production of RDX started at Bridgwater on one unit in August 1941.[37][39] The ROF Bridgwater plant brought in ammonia and methanol as raw materials: the methanol was converted to formaldehyde and some of the ammonia converted to nitric acid, which was concentrated for RDX production.[9] The rest of the ammonia was reacted with formaldehyde to produce hexamine. The hexamine plant was supplied by Imperial Chemical Industries. It incorporated some features based on data obtained from the United States (US).[9] RDX was produced by continually adding hexamine and concentrated nitric acid to a cooled mixture of hexamine and nitric acid in the nitrator.[9] The RDX was purified and processed for its intended use; recovery and reuse of some methanol and nitric acid also was carried out.[9] The hexamine-nitration and RDX purification plants were duplicated (i.e. twin-unit) to provide some insurance against loss of production due to fire, explosion, or air attack.[37]
The United Kingdom and
Canada
A different method of production to the Woolwich process was found and used in Canada, possibly at the McGill University department of chemistry. This was based on reacting paraformaldehyde and ammonium nitrate in acetic anhydride.[41] A UK patent application was made by Robert Walter Schiessler (Pennsylvania State University) and James Hamilton Ross (McGill, Canada) in May 1942; the UK patent was issued in December 1947.[42] Gilman states that the same method of production had been independently discovered by Ebele in Germany prior to Schiessler and Ross, but that this was not known by the Allies.[25][41] Urbański provides details of five methods of production, and he refers to this method as the (German) E-method.[34]
UK, US, and Canadian production and development
At the beginning of the 1940s, the major US explosive manufacturers,
Woolwich method
In 1941, the UK's Tizard Mission visited the US Army and Navy departments and part of the information handed over included details of the "Woolwich" method of manufacture of RDX and its stabilisation by mixing it with beeswax.[40] The UK was asking that the US and Canada, combined, supply 220 short tons (200 t) (440,000 lb) of RDX per day.[40] A decision was taken by William H. P. Blandy, chief of the Bureau of Ordnance, to adopt RDX for use in mines and torpedoes.[40] Given the immediate need for RDX, the US Army Ordnance, at Blandy's request, built a plant that copied the equipment and process used at Woolwich. The result was the Wabash River Ordnance Works run by E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company.[44] At that time, this works had the largest nitric acid plant in the world.[40] The Woolwich process was expensive: it needed 11 pounds (5.0 kg) of strong nitric acid for every pound of RDX.[45]
By early 1941, the NDRC was researching new processes.[45] The Woolwich or direct nitration process has at least two serious disadvantages: (1) it used large amounts of nitric acid and (2) at least one-half of the formaldehyde is lost. One mole of hexamethylenetetramine could produce at most one mole of RDX.[46] At least three laboratories with no previous explosive experience were instructed to develop better production methods for RDX; they were based at Cornell, Michigan, and Pennsylvania State universities.[40][a] Werner Emmanuel Bachmann, from Michigan, successfully developed the "combination process" by combining the Ross and Schiessler process used in Canada (aka the German E-method) with direct nitration.[35][40] The combination process required large quantities of acetic anhydride instead of nitric acid in the old British "Woolwich process". Ideally, the combination process could produce two moles of RDX from each mole of hexamethylenetetramine.[46]
The vast production of RDX could not continue to rely on the use of natural beeswax to desensitize the RDX. A substitute stabilizer based on petroleum was developed at the Bruceton Explosives Research Laboratory.[40]
Bachmann process
The
The Bachmann process yields both RDX and HMX, with the major product determined by the specific reaction conditions.[49]
Military compositions
The United Kingdom's intention in World War II was to use "desensitised" RDX. In the original Woolwich process, RDX was
Terrorism
A
Traces of RDX were found on pieces of wreckage from 1999 Russian apartment bombings[57][58] and 2004 Russian aircraft bombings.[59] FSB reports on the bombs used in the 1999 apartment bombings indicated that while RDX was not a part of the main charge, each bomb contained plastic explosive used as a booster charge.[60][61]
Ahmed Ressam, the al-Qaeda Millennium Bomber, used a small quantity of RDX as one of the components in the bomb that he prepared to detonate in Los Angeles International Airport on New Year's Eve 1999–2000; the bomb could have produced a blast forty times greater than that of a devastating car bomb.[62][63]
In July 2012, the Kenyan government arrested two Iranian nationals and charged them with illegal possession of 15 kilograms (33 pounds) of RDX. According to the
RDX was used in the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri on February 14, 2005.[65]
In the 2019 Pulwama attack in India, 250 kg of high-grade RDX was used by Jaish-e-Mohammed. The attack resulted in the deaths of 44 Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) personnel as well as the attacker.[66]
Two letter bombs sent to journalists in Ecuador were disguised as USB flash drives which contained RDX that would detonate when plugged in.[67]
Stability
RDX has a high nitrogen content and a high oxygen to carbon ratio, (O:C ratio), both of which indicate its explosive potential for formation of N2 and CO2.
RDX undergoes a deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) in confinement and certain circumstances.[68]
The
It starts to decompose at approximately 170 °C and melts at 204 °C. At
RDX
RDX, when exploded in air, has about 1.5 times the explosive energy of TNT per unit weight and about 2.0 times per unit volume.[51][72]
RDX is insoluble in water, with solubility 0.05975 g/L at temperature of 25 °C.[73]
Toxicity
The substance's toxicity has been studied for many years.
During the Vietnam War, at least 40 American soldiers were hospitalized with composition C-4 (which is 91% RDX) intoxication from December 1968 to December 1969. C-4 was frequently used by soldiers as a fuel to heat food, and the food was generally mixed by the same knife that was used to cut C-4 into small pieces prior to burning. Soldiers were exposed to C-4 either due to inhaling the fumes, or due to ingestion, made possible by many small particles adhering to the knife having been deposited into the cooked food. The symptom complex involved nausea, vomiting, generalized seizures, and prolonged postictal confusion and amnesia; which indicated toxic encephalopathy.[76]
Oral toxicity of RDX depends on its physical form; in rats, the LD50 was found to be 100 mg/kg for finely powdered RDX, and 300 mg/kg for coarse, granular RDX.[75] A case has been reported of a human child hospitalized in status epilepticus following the ingestion of 84.82 mg/kg dose of RDX (or 1.23 g for the patient's body weight of 14.5 kg) in the "plastic explosive" form.[77]
The substance has low to moderate toxicity with a
Civilian use
RDX has been used as a rodenticide because of its toxicity.[86]
Biodegradation
RDX is degraded by the organisms in sewage sludge as well as the fungus Phanaerocheate chrysosporium.[87] Both wild and transgenic plants can phytoremediate explosives from soil and water.[88][89]
Alternatives
FOX-7 is considered to be approximately a 1-to-1 replacement for RDX in almost all applications.[90][91]
See also
- Russian apartment bombings
Notes
- ^ These were not the only laboratories to work on RDX, Gilman's 1953 account of the Ross–Schiessler method was based on unpublished work from laboratories at the Universities of Michigan, Pennsylvania, Cornell, Harvard, Vanderbilt, McGill (Canada), Bristol (UK), Sheffield (UK), Pennsylvania State College, and the UK's research department.
References
- ^ "Hexolite, CAS Number: 82030-42-0". Archived from the original on October 27, 2021. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
- ^ a b c Department of the Army Technical Manual TM 9-1300-214: Military Explosives. Headquarters, Department of the Army (United States). 1989.
- ^ a b c d e f NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0169". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
- ^ "RDX explosive". britannica.com. Retrieved September 27, 2021.
- ISBN 978-1613738054.
- ^ Davis, Tenney L. (1943), The Chemistry of Powder and Explosives, vol. II, New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc., p. 396
- ^ MacDonald and Mack Partnership (1984, p. 18)
- ^ Baxter III 1968, pp. 27, 42, 255–259
- ^ a b c d e Simmons, W.H.; Forster, A.; Bowden, R. C. (August 1948), "The Manufacture of R.D.X. in Great Britain: Part II – Raw Materials and Ancillary Processes", The Industrial Chemist, 24: 530–545; Simmons, W.H.; Forster, A.; Bowden, R. C. (September 1948), "The Manufacture of R.D.X. in Great Britain: Part III – Production of the Explosive", The Industrial Chemist, 24: 593–601
- ^ Sweetman, John (2002) The Dambusters Raid. London: Cassell Military Paperbacks. p. 144.
- .
- ^ Ritchie, Robert (March 1984). Tech. Report ARLCD-TR-84004, Improving Quality and Performance of Leads Loaded with Composition A-5 (PDF). Dover, NJ: Large Caliber Weapons Systems Laboratory, US Army ARDC. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 15, 2017. Retrieved November 9, 2018.
- ^ DOD (March 13, 1974). "MIL-C-401E, Composition B, Rev. C". EverySpec. p. 3. Retrieved November 9, 2018.
- ISSN 0022-1198.
- ^ Hampton, L. D. (June 15, 1960), The Development of RDX Composition CH-6 (PDF), White Oak, MD: U. S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, NavOrd Report 680, archived from the original (PDF) on January 19, 2012
- ^ US Explosive Ordnance; Ordnance Pamphlet OP 1664. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: Navy Department, Bureau of Ordnance. May 28, 1947. pp. 3–4. OP 1664 states 21% "aluminum nitrate", but the immediately following text refers to ammonium nitrate.
- ISBN 978-1-84973-330-4. Retrieved November 15, 2018.
- ^ "Semtex". PubChem Open Chemistry Database. Nat. Center for Biotechnology Information, US Library of Medicine. Retrieved November 15, 2018.
- ^ Pekelney, Richard. "U.S. Explosive Ordnance (1947)". San Francisco Maritime National Park. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
- ISBN 978-1-4833-0517-2. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
- ^ "Demolition of the Lake Champlain Bridge" (PDF). New York State Department of Transportation. December 12, 2009. p. 13. Retrieved May 1, 2018.
- ^ .
- .
- ^ a b Urbański (1967, p. 78)
- ^ a b c Urbański (1967, pp. 77–119)
- ^ DE 104280, Henning, Georg Friedrich, issued June 14, 1899
- ^ ISBN 978-3-8132-0867-2
- ^ Urbański (1967, p. 125) credits "G. C. V. Herz" for the patent, but the patentee is Edmund von Herz.
- ^ a b c GB 145791, von Herz, Edmund, "Improvements relating to Explosives", issued March 17, 1921
- ^ a b c US 1402693, von Herz, Edmund, "Explosive", issued January 3, 1922
- ^ Urbański (1967, pp. 107–109)
- ^ Urbański (1967, pp. 104–105)
- ^ Urbański (1967, pp. 105–107)
- ^ a b Urbański (1967, pp. 109–110)
- ^ a b Urbański (1967, pp. 111–113)
- ]
- ^ ISBN 1-85074-718-0
- ISBN 0-85404-640-2
- ^ His Majesty's Stationery Office; Longmans, Green and Co., pp. 112–114
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Baxter III (1968, pp. 253–239)
- ^ a b Gilman, Henry (1953), "The Chemistry of Explosives", Organic Chemistry an Advanced Treatise, vol. III, Wiley; Chapman & Hall, p. 985
- ^ GB 595354, Schiessler, Robert Walter & Ross, James Hamilton, "Method of Preparing 1.3.5. Trinitro Hexahydro S-Triazine", issued December 3, 1947
- ^ a b c Baxter III (1968, pp. 253–254)
- ^ MacDonald and Mack Partnership (1984, p. 19)
- ^ a b MacDonald and Mack Partnership (1984, p. 13) These pages need to be checked. Page 13 may actually be page 18.
- ^ a b Elderfield (1960, p. 6)
- ^ MacDonald and Mack Partnership (1984, p. 32)
- ISBN 978-1-4398-0529-9.
- ^ a b Baxter III (1968, p. 42)
- ^ a b Baxter III (1968, pp. 257 & 259)
- ISBN 978-1439846704.
- ^ Ramesh Vinayak (February 1, 1999). "The Nation: Terrorism: The RDX Files". India-today.com. Archived from the original on October 9, 2010. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
- ^ Singh, Anil (October 2, 2006). "Mumbai". The Times of India. Archived from the original on October 18, 2012.
- ^ "Jaipur blasts: RDX used, HuJI suspected". The Times of India. May 14, 2008. Archived from the original on August 11, 2011. Retrieved May 13, 2011.
- ^ "Moscow Metro bombing masterminds 'will be destroyed'". BBC News. March 29, 2010. Retrieved April 2, 2010.
- ^ "Debate on Cause of Moscow Blast Heats Up". New York Times. September 10, 1999. Retrieved November 14, 2011.
- ^ "U.S. Senator Ben Cardin Releases Report Detailing Two Decades of Putin's Attacks on Democracy, Calling for Policy Changes to Counter Kremlin Threat Ahead of 2018, 2020 Elections | U.S. Senator Ben Cardin of Maryland". cardin.senate.gov. Archived from the original on February 14, 2018. Retrieved January 17, 2018., pages 165-171.
- ^ "Explosive Suggests Terrorists Downed Plane, Russia Says". New York Times. August 28, 2004. Retrieved November 14, 2011.
- ^ Миронов, Иван (September 9, 2002). "Кто и как взрывал Москву". Rossiyskaya Gazeta (in Russian). FSB.
- ^ "О результатах расследования ряда актов терроризма" (in Russian). Federal Security Service. March 14, 2002.
- ^ U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (February 2, 2010). "U.S. v. Ressam" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 4, 2012. Retrieved February 27, 2010.
- ^ "Complaint; U.S. v. Ressam" (PDF). NEFA Foundation. December 1999. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 1, 2012. Retrieved February 26, 2010.
- ^ "Iranian agents in Kenya planned attacks on Israel, US, UK, Saudi Arabian targets". Washington Post. July 2, 2012. Archived from the original on July 3, 2012. Retrieved July 2, 2012.
- ^ Ronen Bergman (February 10, 2015). "The Hezbollah Connection". New York Times. Archived from the original on January 1, 2022. Retrieved February 16, 2015.
- ^ "2019 Pulwama attack: RDX used". The Economic Times. February 15, 2019. Retrieved February 15, 2019.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "At least 5 news stations receive letter bombs in Ecuador, one explodes: "Clear message to silence journalists" - CBS News". www.cbsnews.com. March 21, 2023. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
- ^ Price, D.; Bernecker, R. (1977). "DDT Behavior of Waxed Mixtures of RDX, HMX, and Tetryl" (PDF). Naval Surface Weapons Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 2, 2016.
- ISBN 978-3-11-027359-5, retrieved October 1, 2023
- ISBN 978-1-83916-446-0.
- .
- ^ Elderfield (1960, p. 8)
- ISBN 9781439802458. Archived(PDF) from the original on October 16, 2012.
- ^ Annotated Reference Outline for the Toxicological Review of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (November 23, 2010)
- ^ PMID 854927.
- S2CID 38403787.
- PMID 3746987.
- ^ Faust, Rosmarie A. (December 1994) Toxicity summary for hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). Oak Ridge National Laboratory
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- U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine(CHPPM) "white paper"
- ^ "Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) (CASRN 121-82-4)". epa.gov. Retrieved January 1, 2014.
- ^ Newell, Charles (August 2008). Treatment of RDX & HMX Plumes Using Mulch Biowalls. GSI Environmental, Inc.
- ISBN 978-311027358-8.
- ^ Lustgarten, Abrahm, Canadian Research Adds to Worry Over an Environmental Threat the Pentagon Has Downplayed for Decades, a study released late last year gives environmental experts a way to quantify how much RDX, a chemical used in military explosives, is spreading into surrounding communities, Propublica, January 9, 2018
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.222.8866.
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- ^ "FOX-7 for Insensitive Boosters Merran A. Daniel, Phil J. Davies and Ian J. Lochert" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on March 3, 2017.
- ^ "Fox-7 EURENCO Indeed, DADNE (FOX-7) has been shown to increase the burning rate in propellants more than RDX does, which is very interesting in high performance propellants.". Archived from the original on August 4, 2017. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
Bibliography
- OCLC 476611116
- Elderfield, Robert C. (1960), Werner Emanual Bachmann: 1901–1951 (PDF), Washington DC: National Academy of Sciences, archived (PDF) from the original on June 17, 2011
- MacDonald and Mack Partnership (August 1984), Final Properties Report: Newport Army Ammunition Plant (PDF), National Park Service, AD-A175 818, archived from the original (PDF) on April 29, 2011
- Urbański, Tadeusz (1967), Laverton, Silvia (ed.), Chemistry and Technology of Explosives, vol. III, translated by Jureck, Marian (First English ed.), Warszawa: PWN – Polish Scientific Publishers and Pergamon Press, ISBN 978-0-08-010401-0.
- Urbański translation openlibrary.org, Macmillan, NY, 1964, ISBN 0-08-026206-6.
Further reading
- Agrawal, Jai Prakhash; Hodgson, Robert Dale (2007), Organic Chemistry of Explosives, Wiley, ISBN 978-0-470-02967-1
- US 2680671, Bachmann, Werner E., "Method of Treating Cyclonite Mixtures", published July 16, 1943, issued June 8, 1954
- US 2798870, Bachmann, Werner E., "Method for Preparing Explosives", published July 16, 1943, issued July 9, 1957
- Baxter, Colin F. (2018), The Secret History of RDX: The Super-Explosive That Helped Win World War II., Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, ISBN 978-0-8131-7528-7
- Cooper, Paul W. (1996), Explosives Engineering, New York: Wiley-VCH, ISBN 0-471-18636-8
- Hale, George C. (1925), "The Nitration of Hexamethylenetetramine", Journal of the American Chemical Society, 47 (11): 2754–2763,
- Meyer, Rudolf (1987), Explosives (3rd ed.), VCH Publishers, ISBN 0-89573-600-4
External links
- ADI Limited (Australia). Archive.org leads to Thales group products page that shows some military specifications.
- NLM Hazardous Substances Databank (US) – Cyclonite (RDX)
- CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
- nla.gov.au, Army News (Darwin, NT), October 2, 1943, p 3. "Britain's New Explosive: Experts Killed in Terrific Blast", uses "Research Department formula X"
- nla.gov.au, The Courier-Mail (Brisbane, Qld.), September 27, 1943, p 1.