Raj of Sarawak
Raj of Sarawak Kerajaan Sarawak | |||||||||||||||||
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1841–1946 | |||||||||||||||||
Motto: Bidayuh, Sarawak Malay, Chinese etc. | |||||||||||||||||
Government | Absolute monarchy[4][5] | ||||||||||||||||
White Rajah | |||||||||||||||||
• 1841–1868 (First) | James Brooke | ||||||||||||||||
• 1868-1917
(Second) | Charles Anthony Brooke | ||||||||||||||||
• 1917–1946 (Third) | Vyner Brooke | ||||||||||||||||
Legislature | Allied liberation | 10 June 1945 | |||||||||||||||
• Ceded as a Crown colony | 1 July 1946 | ||||||||||||||||
Currency | Sarawak dollar | ||||||||||||||||
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Today part of | Malaysia Brunei During 1888 (For a short period after the collapse of the sultanate of Brunei)[citation needed] |
The Raj of Sarawak, also the Kingdom of Sarawak or State of Sarawak, located in the northwestern part of the island of
Following recognition, Brooke expanded the Raj's territory at the expense of Brunei. Several major rebellions occurred against his rule, causing him to be plagued by debt incurred in countering the rebellions, and the sluggish economic situation at the time. His nephew, Charles Brooke, succeeded James and normalised the situation by improving the economy, reducing government debts and establishing public infrastructure. In 1888, the Raj acquired protected state status from the British Government whilst avoiding annexation.
To gear up economic growth, the second Rajah encouraged the migration of
History
Foundation and early years
The Raj was founded by James Brooke, an English adventurer who arrived at the banks of the Sarawak River and decided to berth his schooner there in 1839.[6] After serving in the First Anglo-Burmese War where he was severely wounded in battle,[7][8] Brooke returned to England in 1825 to recover from his injury. Despite his attempts to return into service, he was unable to return to his station in India before his temporary leave from the service expired.[9] Overstaying his furlough resulted in his position in the military being forfeited, but he was awarded a pension by the government for his service.[9][10][11] He continued on from India and went to China to improve his health.[12]
On his way to China in 1830, he saw the islands of the
Brooke originally planned to sail to
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Establishment
Upon his return to Sarawak, the rebellion against Brunei's rule was still in progress and Hashim asked Brooke to help. [20] Brooke joins Makhota's forces at Leda Tanah on 18 October 1840.[29] By 20 December 1840 the rebels offered to surrender to Brooke provided they should not be put to death.[30] Hashim initially refused to pardon them and wanted to execute them all, but was convinced by Brooke to forgive them, as Brooke had taken the major part in their suppression.[31] "Hassim agreed to spare the insurgents’ lives and took the wives and children of the insurgency's leaders as hostages. Of the leaders themselves, Datu Patinggi Abdul Gapur and Datu Tumanggong Mersal withdrew to the protection of Sambas, while Datu Patinggi Ali found refuge among the Malays at Sarikei."[32]
In exchange for Brooke's support, Muda Hashim had promised Brooke the country of Siniawan and Sarawak, and its government and trade.
From 1843, Brooke actively suppressed piracy on the coasts of western and northern Borneo together with Captain Henry Keppel in HMS Dido. After talks with Serib Sahib, who controlled the Sadong river, Keppel and Brooke's native forces attacked three rivers in the Saribas, the Padi, Paku and Rimbas. After which, Keppel was called away on orders, but he returned in August 1844 along with EIC steamer Phlegethon.[40] By this time Serib Sahib had abandoned the Sadong and retreated to Patusan. Keppel and Brooke's native forces once again overwhelmed all opposition in Patusan and the Undop, but were ambushed by the Sea Dayak on the river Skrang at Karangan Peris, resulting in the death of Datu Patinggi Ali. Shortly after this punitive expedition Brooke heard that Mahkota, the former administrator of Kuching area, had taken shelter at the Lingga, and managed to capture him and send him back to Brunei.[41][42]
Relationship to Brunei
To prevent any further dispute with Brunei, Brooke hoped to reform the administration of the Sultanate and establish a pro-British government through Hashim and his brother Pengiran Badruddin. In October 1844, Brooke with the aid of Captain Sir Edward Belcher in HMS Samarang and the EIC steamer Phlegethon returned the two brothers to Brunei.[45] The vessels anchored at the Sultan's audience chamber, requesting Pengiran Yusof's position as Bendahara to be replaced by Hashim and asking the Sultan to pledge to suppress piracy in his dominions, as well ceding the island of Labuan to the British (although the British government had not asked for this).[45] The status of Brooke as a Rajah and consul for the British at the time also remained controversial in the United Kingdom as he was not recognised by the British government to represent the British subjects.[46][47] Indirectly, Brooke had become involved in an internal dynastic dispute of Brunei.[48]
In August 1845, Rear-Admiral Thomas Cochrane arrived at Brunei with a squadron of from six to eight ships to release two Lascar seamen who were believed to be hidden there.[48][49] Badruddin accused Yusof of being involved in the slave trade due to his close relations with a notable pirate leader Sharif Usman in Marudu Bay and the Sultanate of Sulu.[48] Denying the allegation, Yusof refused to attend a meeting with Cochrane, and escaped after being threatened with force by Cochrane before regaining his own force in the Brunei capital. Cochrane then sailed away to Marudu Bay in pursuit of Usman, while Yusof was defeated by Badruddin.[48][49] Hashim managed to establish a rightful position in Brunei Town to become the next Sultan after successfully defeating the piratical forces led by Yusof who fled to Kimanis in northern Borneo where he was executed.[50][51] Yusof was the favourite noble to the Sultan and with Hashim's victory, this upset the chances of the son of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II to become the next leader.[51][52] Mahkota, after his capture in Sarawak in 1844 became the Sultan's adviser in the absence of Yusof who had been executed. He prevailed on the Sultan to order the execution of Hashim,[49] whose presence had become unwelcome to the royal family, especially due to his close ties with Brooke that were favourable to English policy.[53] Beside that, an adventurer named Haji Saman, who was connected to the late Yusof, played upon the Sultan's fear of Hashim taking over his throne.[54]
By the order of the Sultan, Hashim and his brother Badruddin together with their family were assassinated in 1846.[49][53][55] One of Badruddin's slaves, Japar, survived the attack and intercepted HMS Hazard, which brought him to Sarawak to inform Brooke. Enraged by the news, Brooke organised an expedition to avenge Hashim's death with the aid of Cochrane from the Royal Navy with Phlegethon.[54] On 6 July 1846, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II complained through a letter about the discourtesy of HMS Hazard and invited Cochrane to ascend the capital with two boats.
HEICS Phlegethon, HMS Spiteful and HMS Royalist then moved up to the river on 8 July where they were fired on from every position with slight damage.[54] Mahkota and the Sultan retreated upriver while most of the population fled upon their arrival at Brunei's capital, leaving the brother of the Sultan's son, Pengiran Muhammad, who was badly wounded and Pengiran Mumin, an opponent of the Sultan's son who despised the decision of his royal family to be involved in conflict with the British.[49][54] The British destroyed the town forts and invited the population to return with no harm to be done to them while the Sultan remained hiding in the jungle. Another expedition was sent to the interior but also failed to find the Sultan. Brooke remained in Brunei with Captain Rodney Mundy and HMS Iris along with Phlegethon and HMS Hazard while the main expedition continued their mission to suppress piracy in northern Borneo.[54]
Upon finding that Haji Saman was living in Membakut and that he was involved in the plotting that caused Hashim's death, the HEICS Phlegethon and HMS Iris departed there destroyed Haji Saman's house and captured the town of Membakut although Saman still managed to escape.[54] Brooke returned again to Brunei and finally managed to induce the Sultan to return to the capital where the Sultan finally regretted the killings of Hashim, his brother and their family members by writing a letter of apology to Queen Victoria.[56] Through his confession, the Sultan recognised Brooke's authority over Sarawak and mining rights throughout the territory without requiring him to pay any tribute as well granting the island of Labuan to the British.[56] Brooke departed Brunei and left Mumin in charge together with Mundy to keep the Sultan in line until the British government made a final decision to acquire the island. Following the ratification agreement of the transfer of Labuan to the British, the Sultan also finally agreed to allow British forces to suppress all piracy along the coast of Borneo.[56]
Later years
Brooke in the following year in 1847, acting as HM Commissioner and British Consul to the Sultan and Independent Chiefs of Borneo negotiated the 1847 Treaty of Friendship and Commerce. One of the articles agreed to prevented the Sultanate from engaging in any concession treaty with other foreign powers especially after the visit of
Three major rebellions led by
Prior to the ongoing piracy suppression, a
Under Charles' administration, Sarawak's economy grew rapidly, especially later on with the discovery of
World War II and decline
Following
On 16 December 1941, a
Lacking air protection, Sarawak, together with rest of the island, fell to the Japanese and Vyner took sanctuary in
Government
Prior to the establishment of the Sarawak Administrative Service under the second Rajah, there had been no formal civil administration.
The government worked to restore peace where
As a British protected state, all foreign relations were conducted under the purview of the British government although internally remaining an independent state ruled by the Rajahs.[111][87] According to an agreement signed on 14 June 1888,[87] it was stipulated:
I. The State of Sarawak shall continue to be governed and administered by the said Rajah and his successors as an independent State under the protection of Great Britain; but such protection shall confer no right on Her Majesty's Government to interfere with the internal administration of the State further than is herein provided.
II. In case any question should hereafter arise respecting the rights of succession to the present or any future Ruler of Sarawak, such question shall be referred to Her Majesty's Government for decision.
III. The relations between the State of Sarawak and all foreign States, including the States of Brunei and North Borneo, shall be conducted by Her Majesty's Government, or in accordance with its directions; and if any difference should arise between the Government of Sarawak and that of any other State, the Government of Sarawak agrees to abide by the decision of Her Majesty's Government, and to take all steps necessary to give effect thereto.
IV. Her Majesty's Government shall have the right to establish British Consular officers in any part of the State of Sarawak, who shall receive exequaturs in the name of the Government of Sarawak. They shall enjoy whatever privileges are usually granted to the Consular officers, and shall be entitled to hoist the British flag over their residences and public offices.
V. British subjects, commerce, and shipping shall enjoy the same right, privileges, and advantages as the subjects, commerce, and shipping of the most favoured nation, as well as any other rights, privileges, and advantages which may be enjoyed by the subjects, commerce and shipping of the State of Sarawak.
VI. No cession or other alienation of any part of the territory of the State of Sarawak shall be made by the Rajah or his successors to any foreign State, or the subjects or the citizens thereof, without the consent of Her Majesty's Government; but this restriction shall not apply to ordinary grants or leases of lands or houses to private individuals for purposes of residence, agriculture, commerce, or other business.
Economy
Population
Upon acquisition of his first territories in the First Division, Brooke came into possession of a large quantity of
Brooke promoted
There was no forced labour, except for prisoners during public works and roads repair. In contrast to
Companies
Borneo Company Limited was formed in 1856. It was involved in a wide range of businesses in Sarawak, including trade, banking, agriculture, mineral exploration and development.[124] The second Rajah worked to stabilise the economy and reduce government debt. The economy grew significantly under his reign, with total exports reaching $386,439 and imports $414,756 in 1863.[86]
Land
The Rajah established the land tenure policy in 1863 with some minor modifications throughout Brooke's rule. Every inhabitant in Sarawak was entitled to three acres of land, in which sale was prohibited, and no one would own more than 100 acres without the permission of the government. Although the majority of the lands were in smallholders, the Brooke government granted several land concessions to Borneo Company Limited to develop rubber, timber, oil, coal, and antimony.[123]
Agriculture
In 1869, by which time total trade had reached $3,262,500,
Currency
A Sarawak dollar was first issued in 1858 and remained at par with the Straits dollar. Different notes were issued by the Sarawak Government Treasury, the earliest notes using English, Jawi and Chinese characters. From the 1880s, the notes' background featured the Rajah's portrait and coat of arms.[132]
Society
Demography
In 1841, Sarawak had an indigenous population of about 8,000.
Water transport
It was during the reign of the Second Rajah that public infrastructure began to be given attention.[135] The river systems in Sarawak are not inter-connected. As a result, coastal ships were used by the Brooke government to carry merchandise from one river system to another. The Brooke government also established a trade route from Kuching to Singapore, using its own ships such as The Royalist, Julia, and The Swift. Among the early cargoes were antimony and gold. The Borneo Company Limited bought another steamer, which they named the Sir James Brooke, to carry antimony, coal, and sago. The ships were the link between Sarawak and Singapore. Charles Brooke encouraged the Sarawak Chamber of Commerce to set up its own shipping lane to Singapore, offering to sell The Royalist to it. In 1875, the "Singapore and Sarawak Steamship Company" was formed and, shortly thereafter, bought The Royalist and the steamer The Rajah Brooke. There were complaints that the company provided irregular services to its customers and, in 1908, the Brooke government transferred another two small steamships, the Adeh and Kaka, to the company in expectation of improvement. In 1919, Chinese interests bought the company's shares, liquidated it and formed a new company named the "Sarawak Steamship Company". The company established shipping lanes linking the Rajang, Limbang, and Baram river systems. The Sibu-Singapore shipping lane was started by the company but soon abandoned, being unprofitable. The establishment of the shipping lanes by Sarawak Steamship Company allowed the indigenous people to participate in wider markets, thus narrowing the income gap between urban and rural areas in Sarawak.[136] The company suffered heavy losses in the trade depression of the 1920s and was acquired by the Singapore-based "Straits Steamship Company". The company established branches at Sibu and Bintulu and installed agents at other small river ports.[136]
Land transport
Land transport in Sarawak was poorly developed owing to the swampy environment around rivers downstream, while dense jungles presented significant challenges to road construction inland. Most of the roads were constructed in coastal areas. Borneo Company Limited and Sarawak Oilfields also constructed a small number of short roads to serve their own economic interests. Meanwhile, in the interior, raised batang[clarification needed] paths were made by the natives using logs to connect villages and their environs, easing access to farms and collection of forest produce. At the same time, rivers remained the most important means of transportation to coastal towns. In the first 70 years of Brooke rule, bridle paths were constructed to connect administrative posts to the surrounding districts. After the 1930s, the policy was changed to providing access from villages to navigable rivers. Road construction during the Brooke era was, however, uncoordinated. Most of the roads located near the towns were short, with the exception of the economically important Miri-Lutong road built by Sarawak Oilfields, the Jambusan road to Tegora via the Dahan estate, and Penrissen road built by the Brooke government. Together with the road developments, bullock carts were introduced together with porters, and hand carts in the mid-19th century, followed by rickshaws at the end of the 19th century, and bicycles in the early 20th century. Public motor services appeared in 1912 together with private taxis.[138] In 1915, a short railway connecting Kuching to Tenth Mile (now Kota Padawan) was opened to the public.[139] Subsequent construction of a road running parallel to the railway led to substantial losses, however, and its operations were limited to transportation of rocks from Seventh Mile to Kuching.[138][140][141]
Electricity and communication
In 1894, while plans for electric street lightning were being drawn up in
Health
In 1915, Dr Ledingham Christie, surgeon to the Borneo Company Limited, conducted a study regarding latent dysentery and parasitism amongst the Malay population staying near the Sarawak River. Those who had latent dysentery or parasites may not show any symptoms, but they may be pale and thin. The Malays at that time usually dumped their sewage into the river, while bathing or drinking from the same spot, in anticipation that water currents would remove the waste. Among the 100 stool samples tested, whipworm (Trichuris trichiura) and roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides) were most commonly found.[153] Cholera was endemic in Sarawak; however very little is documented about the disease. The earliest cholera outbreak in Sarawak was in 1873 but it was not known how many died in it. In the same year, Captain Giles Helyer, the commander of the boat Heartsease, died of cholera. Meanwhile, the two children of Rajah James Brooke also died on board the ship SS Hydaspes, possibly due to cholera. In 1888, an outbreak occurred amongst a number of Malays in Simanggang District. In 1902, another cholera pandemic occurred with 1,500 deaths, at a time when an expeditionary force was organised by the Brookes to punish the Dayaks living in the rural areas of the Simanggang District. This was because the Dayaks were killing and attacking friendly neighbours. The epidemic caused the break-up of the expeditionary force without achieving any of its military objectives. There were also outbreaks in 1910 and 1911. Nevertheless, no outbreaks were reported from 1911 to 1941.[154]
The first doctor was appointed shortly after James Brooke was proclaimed Rajah.[155] Kuching Hospital services existed in the 1800s but no records are available. The earliest record of the Kuching Hospital (now Sarawak General Hospital) was available in 1910 which shows it admitted 920 patients that year.[156] In 1925, a leprosy settlement was constructed in Kuching. Rajah Charles Brooke Memorial Hospital was also constructed to treat leprosy patients.[157] In 1931, a facility to treat mental illness was constructed beside the Kuching Hospital.[157] In Sibu, the construction of Lau King Howe Hospital (now Lau King Howe Hospital Memorial Museum) was completed in 1936.[158] In 1935, there were six doctors serving the needs of the senior government servants. The State Health Office (known as Medical Headquarters) was located at the Kuching Pavilion building from 1909 to 1947. There was only one assistant dental officer before the Japanese occupation. Charles Vyner Brooke had been attempting to persuade doctors from the Straits Settlements to serve in Sarawak but the response had been cold.[155] The medical service continued under Japanese occupation. There are few records regarding the development of dentistry in the 1900s. Several accounts from elderly people stated that there were traditional healers and roadside tooth-pullers performing palliative treatments at that time. The first government dentist was appointed in July 1925 at Kuching General Hospital. In 1932, the "Sarawak Government Registration of Dentist Ordinance" was introduced. A total of 15 dentists were registered before the Japanese occupation.[159]
Science
Media
The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (since 1820), the Sarawak Gazette (since 1870),[163] and the Sarawak Museum Journal (since 1911) hold a significant amount of information on Sarawak before and during the Rajahs administration.
See also
- History of Sarawak
- List of British representatives in the Raj of Sarawak
- List of heads of government of the Raj of Sarawak
References
Citations
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- ^ a b Straumann 2014, p. 63.
- ^ Salisbury (6 March 1888). "Minutes by Lord Salisbury regarding the Borneo Protectorates". The Trove. Foreign Office. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
Under the proposed arrangement, Brunei, Sarawak , and North Borneo would become "independent protected states", preserving their absolute rights of internal govt, but carrying on their relations with foreign states only through the medium of the protecting power.
- ^ Storey 2012, p. 7.
- ^ Great Britain. War Office 1942, p. 123.
- ^ Pybus 1996, p. 9.
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- ^ a b c d e Storey 2012, p. 6.
- ^ Boyle 1868, p. 204.
- ^ Fraser 2013, p. 133.
- ^ a b anon 1846, p. 357.
- ^ a b c Boyle 1868, p. 205.
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- ^ anon 1879, p. 633.
- ^ Walker 2002, p. 43.
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- ^ Keppel, Henry (1846). The Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. Dido for the Suppression of Piracy: Vol 1. Chapman and Hall. p. 170.
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- ^ Ranee of Sarawak 1914, p. 429.
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Sources
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- Whitaker, Joseph (1848). An Almanack for the Year of Our Lord ... J. Whitaker.
- Brooke (1), James (1853). The Private Letters of Sir James Brooke, K.C.B., Rajah of Sarawak, Narrating the Events of His Life, from 1838 to the Present Time. Vol. 1. R. Bentley.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - Brooke (3), James (1853). The Private Letters of Sir James Brooke, Rajah of Sarawak: Narrating the Events of His Life from 1838 to the Present Time. Vol. 3. R. Bentley.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - Foggo, George (1853). Adventures of Sir J. Brooke, Rajah of Sarawak. Effingham Wilson.
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Further reading
- Runciman, Steven (1960). "The White Rajahs". Cambridge University Press. University of Allahabad, Digital Library of India. p. 340.
- "Sarawak: A Kingdom in the Jungle". The New York Times. 1986. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017.
- "Chronology of Sarawak throughout the Brooke Era to Malaysia Day". The Borneo Post. 2011. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017.
- "Sarawak: A Most Unusual Territory". The London Gazette. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017.
- "The Brooke Era (1841 â€" 1941)". Sarawak State Government. 2014. Archived from the original on 7 August 2017.
- Yap, Joanna (2016). "Tracing influence of Brunei and Sambas in formation of S'wak". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 12 August 2017.
External links
- The Brooke Trust – More information on heritage of the Brooke dynasty
- e-Sarawak Gazette – Archive of the Sarawak Gazette ranging from 1907 to 1993
- Trove – Archive of the British Foreign Office Correspondence regarding Borneo (Brunei, Sarawak, Labuan, British North Borneo) 1842–1905
- Trove – Records of the United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel – Borneo and Malaya 1778–1952