Rajaraja I

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Rajaraja I
Rājakēsari Varman,
Ponniyin Selvan, Mum'muṭi Cōḻan,
Rajendra I
BornArulmozhi Varman
c. 947
Thanjavur, Chola Empire (modern-day Tamil Nadu, India)
Died1014(1014-00-00) (aged 66–67)
Thanjavur, Chola Empire (modern-day Tamil Nadu, India)
Spouse
  • Thiripuvana Madeviyar
  • Lokamahadevi
  • Cholamahadevi
  • Tirilokyamahadevi
  • Panchavanmahadevi
  • Abhimanavalli
  • Latamahadevi
  • Prithivimahadevi
Issue
  • Rajendra Chola I
  • Arulmozhi chandramalli alias Gangamadevi
  • Mathevadigal
Pottapi
DynastyChola
FatherParantaka II
MotherVanavan Mahadevi
ReligionHinduism
See details
SignatureRajaraja I's signature
1246–1279
Related

Rajaraja I (

Classical Sanskrit: Rājarāja Śōḷa; 947 CE – 1014 CE),[1][2] also known as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests of Southern India and parts of Sri Lanka, and increasing Chola influence across the Indian Ocean.[3][4]

His empire included vast regions of the

Western Chalukyas extended the Chola authority as far as the Tungabhadra River. On the eastern coast, he battled with the Telugu Chola king Jata Choda Bhima for the possession of Vengi.[5][6][7][8]

Rajaraja I also built the

Rajendra Chola I
.

Early life

Aditha Karikalan
meeting their guru.

Rajaraja was a son of the Chola king

Sadhayam star.[15] He had an elder brother – Aditha II,[2] and an elder sister – Kundavai.[16]

Rajaraja's ascension ended a period of rival claims to the throne, following the death of his great-grandfather

Arinjaya. Arinjaya died soon and was succeeded by his son Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola. It was decided that the throne would pass on to Madhurantakan after Sundara: this decision was most probably that of Sundara himself, although the Thiruvalangadu inscription of Rajaraja's son Rajendra I claims that it was made by Rajaraja.[2]

Aditha died under mysterious circumstances; inscriptions hint at him being assassinated. Sundara died soon after, clearing the way for Madhurantakan to be king under the title Uttama Chola. After the death of Uttama, Rajaraja finally ascended the throne in June–July 985.[2] Known as Arumoḷi Varman until this point, he adopted the regnal name Rajaraja, which means "King among Kings".[17]

Military conquests

Chola empire during the reign of Rajaraja I

Rajaraja inherited a kingdom whose boundaries were limited to the traditional Chola territory centred around

Rashtrakuta invasions in the preceding years. Rajaraja turned it into a well-administered empire that possessed a strong army and a navy. During his reign, the northern kingdom of Vengi became a Chola protectorate, and the Chola influence on the eastern coast extended as far as Kalinga in the north.[2]

Several regiments are mentioned in the Thanjavur inscriptions.[18][19] These regiments were divided into elephant troops, cavalry and infantry and each of these regiments had its autonomy and was free to endow benefactions or build temples.[18]

Against Kandalur Salai

Inscription of Rajaraja in Suchindram, near Kanyakumari

Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions depict a major victory at Kandalur Salai (in present-day Kerala) in c. 988 CE, calling him "Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta" (lit.'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai').[20] The Salai originally belonged to the Ay chief, a vassal of the Pandya king at Madurai. The involvement of either Chera or Pandya warriors in this battle remains uncertain. The Thiruvalangadu inscription mentions that Rajaraja's general captured Vizhinjam (Viḷinam): this conquest may have been a part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. The engagement seems to have been an effort of the Chola navy or a combined effort of the navy and the army.[21]

Conquest of Kerala and the Pandyas

Rajaraja's inscriptions start to appear in

Rajendra Chola for his father.[23]

After defeating the Pandyas, Rajaraja adopted the title Pandya Kulashani (lit.'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas'). The Pandya country came to be known as "Rajaraja Mandalam" or "Rajaraja Pandinadu".[24] While describing the Rajaraja's campaign in trisanku kastha (the south), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I states that he seized certain royal Amarabhujanga.[25] Identification of this prince (either a Pandya prince or a general of the Pandya king or a Kongu Chera prince) remains unresolved.[23][25] Kongu Desa Rajakkal, a chronicle of the Kongu Nadu region, suggests that this general later shifted his allegiance to Rajaraja, and performed the Chola king's kanakabhisheka ceremony.[25]

After consolidating his rule in the south, Rajaraja assumed the title Mummudi Chola, meaning three Crowned a reference to his control over the three ancient Tamil countries of the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras.[1]

Conquest of Sri Lanka

Ruins of a shrine dedicated to Shiva, built after Rajaraja's conquest of Polonnaruwa, which he renamed to Jananathamangalam .

During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around the year 982 AD, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 882 CE, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness. [26][27]

The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in the year 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura. [26][27]

In 993, Rajaraja conquered Anuradhapura(Pihiti rata), Sri Lanka, which was renamed as Ila-mandalam in the Chola records.[22] The Chola army sacked Anuradhapura, and captured the northern half of Sri Lanka. The Cholas established a provincial capital at the military outpost of Polonnaruwa, naming it Jananathamangalam after the title of Rajaraja.[27] The Chola official Tali Kumaran erected a Shiva temple called Rajarajeshwara ("Lord of Rajaraja") in the town of Mahatirtha (modern Mantota), which was renamed Rajarajapura.[27]

In the year 993, under the leadership of Rajaraja I, the Chola Empire achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura (known as Pihiti rata) in the island of Sri Lanka, a significant event documented in Chola records where the region was renamed Ila-mandalam. During this military campaign, the Chola army laid siege to Anuradhapura, resulting in its eventual capture and the subjugation of the northern territories of Sri Lanka. Following the conquest, the Cholas established a provincial administrative center at the strategic military outpost of Polonnaruwa, designating it Jananathamangalam, a title honoring Rajaraja.

In commemoration of their triumph, the Chola official Tali Kumaran oversaw the construction of a prominent Shiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning "Lord of Rajaraja," in the town of Mahatirtha, now recognized as modern Mantota. This temple served as a symbol of Chola authority and religious devotion, with Mahatirtha itself being renamed Rajarajapura in honor of the Chola emperor. These developments, meticulously chronicled in historical accounts, underscore the strategic and cultural significance of the Chola conquest of Anuradhapura and the subsequent establishment of their rule in northern Sri Lanka.


Comparing Raja raja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama, the Thiruvalangadu Plates states:[1]

"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka."

— Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates[1]

In 1017, Rajaraja's son Rajendra I completed the Chola conquest of Sri Lanka.[28] The Cholas controlled Sri Lanka until 1070, when Vijayabahu I defeated and expelled them.[29]

Chalukyan conflict

In 998 CE, Rajaraja captured the regions of Gangapadi, Nolambapadi and Tadigaipadi (present-day

Pallavas of Kanchi.[37][38]

By 1004 CE, the Gangavadi province was conquered by Rajaraja.

Eastern Chalukya Kingdom and which also ensured that the descendants of Rajaraja would rule the Eastern Chalukya kingdom in the future.[42]

Hoysala conflicts

There were encounters between the Cholas and the

Kalinga conquest

The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi.[46] It was an important conquest, marking the northern reaches of the Chola Empire at that time to rule the whole of South and South-East India

Conquest of Kuda-malai-nadu

There are multiple references to the conquest of "Kuda-malai-nadu" by King Rajaraja (from c. 1000 CE onwards).[8][47] The term Kudagu-malai-nadu is substituted in place of Kuda-malai-nadu in some of the inscriptions found in Karnataka and this region has been generally identified with Coorg (Kudagu).[8][48]

It is said that the king conquered Malainadu for the sake of messengers in one day after crossing 18 mountain passes (Vikrama Chola Ula).[8] Kulottunga Chola Ula makes reference to Rajaraja cutting off 18 heads and setting fire to Udagai.[49] Kalingathupparani mentions the institution of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the capture of Udagai, and the plunder of several elephants from there.[8] Tiruppalanam inscription (999 CE) mentions the gift of an idol by the king from the booty obtained in Malainadu.[8][50][51][52]

Naval expedition

"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."

— Romila Thapar, "Encyclopaedia Britannica".

One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the islands of Maldives ("the Ancient Islands of the Sea Numbering 1200").[53][8] The naval campaign was a demonstration of the Chola naval power in the Indian Ocean.[8]

The Cholas controlled the area around

Rajendra Chola to lead the Chola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupying Kadaram.[5][55]

Personal life

Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.

Rajendra with Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār[60][61][62] and younger one is Araiyan Rajarajan (Mother unknown).He had his first daughter Kundavai with Lokamadevi. Kundavai married Chalukya prince Vimaladithan. He had two other daughters named Mathevadigal[citation needed] and Ģangamādevi or Arumozhi Chandramalli.[59] Rajaraja died in 1014 CE in the Tamil month of Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I.[63]

Administration

Tamilnadu
mint. Legend "Chola, conqueror of the Gangas" in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.
Imperial Seal of Rajaraja I

Before the reign of Rajaraja I, parts of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.[64] Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 CE which led to the reorganization of the empire into units known as valanadus.[11][12] From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133 CE, the hereditary lords and local princes was either replaced or turned into dependent officials.[64] This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire.[64] Rajaraja strengthened the local self-government and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.[65][66][67] To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission to China.[68]

His elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples.[69]

Officials

Mural depicting Rajaraja and his guru Karuvuruvar found in the Brihadisvara temple, Tamil Nadu, 11th century.[70][71]

Rajendra Chola I was made a co-regent during the last years of Rajaraja's rule. He was the supreme commander of the northern and north-western dominions. During the reign of Raja Chola, there was an expansion of the administrative structure leading to an increase in the number of offices and officials in the Chola records than during earlier periods.[11] Villavan Muvendavelan, one of the top officials of Rajaraja figures in many of his inscriptions.[72] The other names of officials found in the inscriptions are the Bana prince Narasimhavarman, a general Senapathi Krishnan Raman, the Samanta chief Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.[73]

Religious policy

Rajaraja was a follower of Shaivism sect of Hinduism but he also dedicated several temples to Vishnu.

In the 11th century CE, the Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery, was built by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman with the patronage of Rajaraja I in Nagapattinam.[74][75] It was named Chudamani or Chulamani Vihara after king Sri Mara's father.[76] As per the small Leyden grant this Vihara was called Rajaraja-perumpalli during the time of Kulottunga I.[77] Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara.[78]

Rajaraja called himself Shivapada Shekhara (

IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, "the one who places his crown at the feet of Shiva".[79]

Arts and architecture

Bronze Sculpture of Rajaraja

Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of Thevaram in his court.

Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) is wholly known as Tirumurai, the holy book. Thus Saiva's literature which covers about 600 years of religious, philosophical and literary development.[85]

No contemporary portrait or statue of Rajaraja survives; the bronze figure depicting Rajaraja at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of late origin.[22]

Brihadisvara Temple

Brihadisvara Temple built by Rajaraja I, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

In 1010 CE, Rajaraja built the

The

Nandi (sacred bull), carved out of a single rock measuring about 16 feet long and 13 feet high at the entrance. The entire temple structure is made out of granite, the nearest sources of which are about 60 km to the west of the temple. The temple is one of the most visited tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu.[93]

Coins

Copper Coin or Rajaraja I

Before the reign of Rajaraja, the Chola coins had on the obverse the tiger emblem and the fish and bow emblems of the Pandya and Chera Dynasties and the reverse the name of the King. But during the reign of Rajaraja appeared a new type of coins. The new coins had on the obverse the figure of the standing king and on the reverse the seated goddess.[94] The coins spread over a great part of South India and were also copied by the kings of Sri Lanka.[95]

Inscriptions

A typical lithic inscription of the Chola period

Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone. An inscription in

Mulbagal in Karnataka shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such a Meikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows:[96]

Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves.[97][98]

ஸ்வஸ்திஸ்ரீ் திருமகள் போல பெருநில
பெருநிலச் செல்வியுந் தனக்கேயுரிமை
கேயுரிமை பூண்டமை மனக்கொளக்
காந்தளூர்ச் சாலைக் களமறூத்தருளி வேங்கை
உடையார் ஸ்ரீராஜராஜ
Excerpts of Rajaraja's inscription from Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur (first line in every image)

Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.[99]

Another inscription from Gramardhanathesvara temple in South

Arcot district dated in the seventh year of the king refers to the fifteenth year of his predecessor that is Uttama Choladeva described therein as the son of Sembiyan-Madeviyar.[100]

In popular culture

20th Century Sculpture of Rajaraja in Thanjavur.
  • Ponniyin Selvan: I, a 2022 film based on Kalki Krishnamurthy's 1955 novel Ponniyin Selvan, deals with the succession troubles during the reign of Sundara Chola and the death of the elder prince Aditha Karikalan. The role of the younger prince Arulmoli Varman, also known as Ponniyin Selvan (the future Rajaraja I) is played by the Tamil cinema actor Jayam Ravi[101]. The sequel Ponniyin Selvan: II was released in 2023.
  • Rajaraja Cholan, a 1973 Tamil film starring Sivaji Ganesan.[102]
  • Uttama to the Chola throne.[103]
  • Nandipurathu Nayagi by Vembu Vikiraman revolves around the ascension of Uttama Chola to the throne and Rajaraja's naval expedition.
  • Rajaraja Cholan by Kathal Ramanathan.
  • Kandalur Vasantha Kumaran Kathai by Sujatha which deals with the situations leading Rajaraja to invade Kandalur.
  • Rajakesari and Cherar Kottai by Gokul Seshadri deal with the Kandalur invasion and its after-effects.
  • Bharat Ek Khoj, a 1988 historical drama in its episodes 22 and 23 depicts Rajaraja Chola.[104] The role was played by late actor Om Puri.
  • Kaviri Mainthan, a 2007 novel by Anusha Venkatesh.
  • Udayaar, a book by Tamil author Balakumaran which deals with RajaRaja's later years and Rajendra Chola I's ascension.

See also

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Bibliography

External links

Preceded by
Uttama Chola
Rajaraja I
985–1014
Succeeded by
Rajendra Chola I