Ramayana
Rāmāyaṇa | |
---|---|
Information | |
Religion | Hinduism |
Author | Valmiki |
Language | Sanskrit |
Period | 8th century BCE–3rd century CE |
Chapters | 500 Sargas, 7 Kandas |
Verses | 24,000 |
Full text | |
Rāmāyaṇa at Sanskrit Wikisource | |
The Ramayana at English Wikisource |
Part of a series on |
Hinduism |
---|
The Ramayana (
The scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE,[5][6] and later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE,[7] although original date of composition is unknown. It is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature and consists of nearly 24,000 verses (mostly set in the Shloka/Anuṣṭubh metre), divided into seven kāṇḍa (chapters). It belongs to the genre of Itihasa, narratives of past events (purāvṛtta), interspersed with teachings on the goals of human life.
There are many
The Ramayana was an important influence on later
Etymology
The name Rāmāyaṇa is composed of two words, Rāma and ayaṇa. Rāma, the name of the main figure of the epic, has two contextual meanings. In the Atharvaveda, it means 'dark, dark-coloured, black' and is related to the word rātri which means 'darkness or stillness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in the Mahabharata, is 'pleasing, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful'.[13][14] The word ayana means travel or journey. Thus, Rāmāyaṇa means "Rama's journey", with ayana altered to ayaṇa due to the Sanskrit grammar rule of internal sandhi.[15][16]
Textual characteristics
Genre
The Ramayana belongs to the genre of
Structure
In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana is an epic poem containing over 24,000 couplet verses, divided into seven kāṇḍas (Bālakāṇḍa, Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Kiṣkindakāṇḍa, Sundarākāṇḍa, Yuddhakāṇḍa, Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters).[18][19] It is regarded as one of the longest epic poems to be written in history.[20]
Dating
Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the available text range from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE,[21][6] with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE.[7] According to Robert P. Goldman (1984), the oldest parts of the Ramayana date to the early 7th century BCE.[22] The later parts cannot be composed later than the 6th or 5th century BCE, due to the narrative not mentioning Buddhism (founded in the 5th century BC) nor the prominence of Magadha (which rose to prominence in the 7th century BC). The text also mentions Ayodhya as the capital of Kosala, rather than its later name of Saketa or the successor capital of Shravasti.[23] In terms of narrative time, the action of the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata. Goldman and Sutherland Goldman (2022) consider Ramayana's oldest surviving version was composed around 500 BCE.[24]
Books two to six are the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books (
Recensions
The Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions, and sub-recensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional revisions: the northern (n) and the southern (s). Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind."
There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) of Valmiki's Ramayana were composed by the original author. The uttarākāṇḍa, the bālakāṇḍa, although frequently counted among the main ones, is not a part of the original epic. Though Balakanda is sometimes considered in the main epic, according to many Uttarakanda is certainly a later interpolation and thus is not attributed to the work of Valmiki.[18] This fact is reaffirmed by the absence of these two Kāndas in the oldest manuscript.[26] Many Hindus don't believe they are integral parts of the scripture because of some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest.[27]
It is also thought that the Uttara Kanda is a direct contradiction in terms of how Rama and Dharma is portrayed in the rest of the epic. M. R. Parameswaran states that the adaptation in societal values such as the positions of women and
Since Rama was revered as a dharmatma, his ideas seen in the Ramayana proper cannot be replaced by new ideas as to what dharma is, except by claiming that he himself adopted those new ideas. That is what the U-K [Uttara Kanda] does. It embodies the new ideas in two stories that are usually referred to as Sita-parityaga, the abandonment of Sita (after Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya and Rama was consecrated as king) and Sambuka-vadha, the killing of the ascetic Sambuka. The U-K attributes both actions to Rama, whom people acknowledged to be righteous and as a model to follow. By masquerading as an additional kanda of the Ramayana composed by Valmiki himself, the U-K succeeded, to a considerable extent, in sabotaging the values presented in Valmiki's Ramayana.[28]
Characters
Synopsis
Bāla Kāṇḍa
The epic begins with the sage Vālmīki asking Nārada if there is a righteous man still left in the world, to which Nārada replies that such a man is Rāma. After seeing two birds being shot, Vālmīki creates a new form of metre called śloka, and then is granted the ability to compose an epic poem about Rāma. He teaches his poem to the boys Lava and Kuśa, who recite it throughout the land and eventually at the court of king Rāma, which then begins the main narrative.[29]
Daśaratha was the King of Ayodhyā. He had three wives: Kausalyā, Kaikeyī, and Sumitrā. He did not have a son and in the desire to have a legal heir performs a fire sacrifice known as Putrīyā Iṣṭi. Meanwhile, the gods are petitioning to Brahmā and Viṣhṇu about Rāvaṇa, king of the rākṣasas who is terrorizing the universe. Thus Viṣṇu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon Rāvaṇa. As a consequence, Rāma was first born to Kausalyā, Bharata was born to Kaikeyī, and Lakṣmaṇa and Śatrughna were born to Sumitrā.[29]
When Rāma was 16 years old, the r̥ṣi (sage) Viśvāmitra comes to the court of Daśaratha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rāma, who is followed by Lakṣmaṇa, his constant companion throughout the story. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Viśvāmitra and proceed to destroy Tāṭakā and many other demons. Viśvāmitra also recounts much lore of the landscape, his own ancestors, and the ancestors of the princes.[29]
The party then decide to go to attend king Janaka's sacrifice in the kingdom of Mithilā, who has a bow that no one has been able to string. Janaka recounts the history of the famed bow, and informs them that whoever strings the bow will win the hand of his daughter Sītā, whom he had found in the earth when plowing a field. Rāma then proceeds to not only string the bow, but breaks it in the process. Rāma marries Sītā; the wedding is celebrated with great festivity in Mithilā and the marriage party returns to Ayodhyā.[29]
Ayodhyā Kāṇḍa
After Rāma and Sītā have been married, an elderly Daśaratha expresses his desire to crown Rāma, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyī was happy about this, but was later on provoked by Mantharā, a wicked maidservant, to claim two boons that Daśaratha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyī demands Rāma to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata.
The grief-stricken king, bound by his word, accedes to Kaikeyī's demands. Rāma accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout the story. He asks Sītā to remain in Ayodhyā, but she convinces him to take her with him in exile. Lakṣmaṇa also resolves to follow his brother into the forest.
After Rāma's departure, King Daśaratha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata, who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhyā. Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rāma in the forest. He requests Rāma to return and rule. But Rāma, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile.
Araṇya Kāṇḍa
After fourteen years of exile, Rāma, Sītā, and Lakṣmaṇa journey southward along the banks of the river
When the news of these events reaches Rāvaṇa, he resolves to destroy Rāma by capturing Sītā with the aid of the rakṣasa Mārīca. Mārīca, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sītā's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sītā pleads with Rāma to capture it. Rāma, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sītā from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sītā under Lakṣmaṇa's guard.
After some time, Sītā hears Rāma calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakṣmaṇa rush to his aid. Lakṣmaṇa tries to assure her that Rāma cannot be hurt that easily and that it is best if he continues to follow Rāma's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sītā insists that it is not she but Rāma who needs Lakṣmaṇa's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He then draws a line that no demon could cross and leaves to help Rāma. With the coast finally clear, Rāvaṇa appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sītā's hospitality. Unaware of her guest's plan, Sītā is tricked and is then forcibly carried away by Rāvaṇa.[30]
Jatāyu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sītā but is mortally wounded. In Lankā, Sītā is kept under the guard of rakṣasīs. Ravaṇa asks Sītā to marry him, but she refuses, being totally devoted to Rāma. Meanwhile, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa learn about Sītā's abduction from Jatāyu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet Kabandha and the ascetic Śabarī, who directs them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.
Kiṣkindhā Kāṇda
Citadel Kishkindha Kanda is set in the place of Vānaras (Vana-nara) – Forest dwelling humans.[31] Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa meet Hanumān, the biggest devotee of Rāma, greatest of ape heroes, and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kiṣkindhā. Rāma befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vāli thus regaining the kingdom of Kiṣkindhā, in exchange for helping Rāma to recover Sītā.
However, Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time enjoying his newly gained power. The clever former ape queen Tārā, (wife of Vāli) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakṣmaṇa from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east, and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Aṅgada and Hanumān learns from a vulture named Sampātī the elder brother of Jatāyu, that Sītā was taken to Lankā.
Sundara Kaṇḍa
Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account of
After entering Lankā, he finds a demon, Lankini, who protects all of Lankā. Hanumān fights with her and subjugates her in order to get into Lankā. In the process, Lankini, who had an earlier vision/warning from the gods, therefore, knows that the end of Lankā nears if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanumān explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Rāvaṇa. He locates Sītā in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Rāvaṇa and his rakshasis to marry Rāvaṇa.
Hanumān reassures Sītā, giving Rāma's signet ring as a sign that Rāma is still alive. He offers to carry Sītā back to Rāma; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramāyaṇa will not have significance if Hanumān carries her to Rāma – "When Rāma was not there Rāvaṇa carried Sītā forcibly and when Rāvaṇa was not there, Hanumān carried Sītā back to Ræma." She says that Rāma himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction. She gives Hanumān her comb as a token to prove that she is still alive.
Hanumān takes leave of Sītā. Before going back to Rāma and tell him of Sītā's location & desire to be rescued only by him, he decides to wreak havoc in Lankā by destroying trees in the Naulakha Bagh and buildings and killing Rāvaṇa's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Rāvaṇa. He gives a bold lecture to Rāvaṇa to release Sīta. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaps from roof to roof, sets fire to Rāvaṇa's citadel, and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kiṣkindhā with the news.
Yuddha Kāṇḍa
Also known as Lankā Kāṇḍa, this book describes the war between the army of Rāma and the army of Rāvaṇa. Having received Hanuman's report on Sītā, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Rāvaṇa's renegade brother
The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's son
On meeting Sītā, Rāma says; "The dishonour meted out to him and the wrong done to her by Rāvaṇa have been wiped off, by his victory over the enemy with the assistance of Hanumān, Sugrīva and Vibhishaṇa".[33] However, upon criticism from people in his kingdom about the chastity of Sītā, Rāma gets extremely disheartened. So Sītā, in order to prove the citizens wrong and wipe the false blame on her, requests Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa to prepare a pyre for her to enter. When Lakṣmaṇa prepares the pyre, Sītā prays to Agni and enters into it, in order to prove her conjugal fidelity. Agni appears in person from the burning pyre, carrying Sītā in his arms and restores her to Rāma, testifying to her purity.[34] Rama later joyfully accepts her. The episode of Agni Pariksha varies in the versions of Ramāyaṇa by Valmiki and Tulsidas. In Tulsidas's Ramcharitmanas, Sītā was under the protection of Agni (see Māyā Sītā) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rāma.The Gods led by Brahma arrives and Glorifies Rama as the incarnation of Supreme God Narayana. Indra restores the dead Vanaras back to life.
After the exile, Rāma returns to Ayodhya and the people are so happy they celebrate it like a festival.
Uttara Kanda
Scholars note "linguistic and rhetorical differences" between the Uttara Kanda and books 2 through 6 of the Ramayana, especially in stories such as Sita's exile and death of Shambuka, and together with Bala Kanda it is considered by some scholars to be an interpolation, and that "the 'original' poem ended with the Yuddhakanda.[39][40]
This kanda narrates Rama's reign of Ayodhya, the birth of Lava and Kusha, the Ashvamedha yajna, and last days of Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being asked to prove his devotion to Rama, Hanuman tears his chest open and to everyone's surprise, there is an image of Rama and Sita inside his chest. Rama rules Ayodhya and the reign is called Rama-Rajya (a place where the common folk is happy, fulfilled, and satisfied). Then Valmiki trained Lava and Kusha in archery and succeeded the throne after Rama.
Versions
As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on Ramayana in Indonesia, Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam and Maldives.
India
There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. A West Bengal manuscript from the 6th century presents the epic without two of its kandas.
During the 12th century,
The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early 14th century
Other versions include
There is a sub-plot to the Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of
The Gondi people have their own version of the Ramayana known as the Gond Ramayani, derived from oral folk legends. It consists of seven stories with Lakshmana as the protagonist, set after the main events of the Ramayana, where he finds a bride.[44]
Early medieval recension from Bengal
Chance discovery of a 6th-century manuscript reveals insights into the evolution of the narrative. Importantly, the 'Daśagrīvā Rākṣasa Charitrām Vadham' (Slaying of the Ten-Headed Giant) manuscript contains only five kandas (chapters), and ends with the trio's triumphant return to Ayodhya.[45][46]
Missing from this particular recension are the 'Balakanda' dealing with Rama's childhood, and the 'Uttarakanda' – which narrates (a) Rama's divinity as an avatar of Vishnu, (b) the events leading up to the exile of Sita, (c) the death of Rama's devoted brother, Lakshmana. These are also the only two books where the Sage Valmiki appears as a character.[47]
The manuscript was discovered in 2015, from an archive compiled by the German Indologist Theodor Aufrecht.
Early references in Tamil literature
Even before
The entire Ramayana was written as an
Buddhist version
In the Buddhist variant of the Ramayana (
After nine years, Dasharatha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned. Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to his father's wishes, remained in exile for a further two years. This version does not include the abduction of Sītā. There is no
In the explanatory commentary on Jātaka, Rāmapaṇḍita is said to have been a previous birth of the
Jain versions
Rama,
In the Jain epic of Ramayana, it is not Rama who kills Ravana as told in the Hindu version. Perhaps this is because Rama, a liberated Jain Self in his last life, is unwilling to kill.
The Jain versions have some variations from Valmiki's Ramayana. Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya had four queens: Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma and he became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was Narayana: he came to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna. Furthermore, not much was thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to the Jain version, Rama had four chief queens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha, and Sridama.
Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in heaven as Indra. Rama, after Lakshman's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately, he attains
Southeast Asian
Indonesia
There are several Indonesian adaptations of Ramayana, including the Javanese Kakawin Ramayana[60][61] and Balinese Ramakavaca. The first half of Kakawin Ramayana is similar to the original Sanskrit version, while the latter half is very different. One of the recognizable modifications is the inclusion of the indigenous Javanese guardian demigod, Semar, and his sons, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong who make up the numerically significant four Punokawan or "clown servants".[62]
Kakawin Ramayana is believed to have been written in
Kakawin Ramayana was further developed on the neighboring island of Bali becoming the Balinese Ramakavaca. The bas-reliefs of Ramayana and Krishnayana scenes are carved on balustrades of the 9th century Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta,[64] as well as in the 14th century Penataran temple in East Java.[65] In Indonesia, the Ramayana is a deeply ingrained aspect of the culture, especially among Javanese, Balinese and Sundanese people, and has become the source of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aesthetic expression and entertainment, for example in wayang and traditional dances.[66]
The Balinese kecak dance for example, retells the story of the Ramayana, with dancers playing the roles of Rama, Sita, Lakhsmana, Jatayu, Hanuman, Ravana, Kumbhakarna and Indrajit surrounded by a troupe of over 50 bare-chested men who serve as the chorus chanting "cak". The performance also includes a fire show to describe the burning of Lanka by Hanuman.[67] In Yogyakarta, the Wayang Wong Javanese dance also retells the Ramayana. One example of a dance production of the Ramayana in Java is the Ramayana Ballet performed on the Trimurti Prambanan open air stage, with dozens of actors and the three main prasad spires of the Prambanan Hindu temple as a backdrop.[68]
Malaysia
The Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia incorporated element of both Hindu history and Islamic mythology.[69][70][71]
Philippines
The Maharadia Lawana, an epic poem of the Maranao people of the Philippines, has been regarded as an indigenized version of the Ramayana since it was documented and translated into English by Professor Juan R. Francisco and Nagasura Madale in 1968.[72]: "264" [73] The poem, which had not been written down before Francisco and Madale's translation,[72]: "264" narrates the adventures of the monkey-king, Maharadia Lawana, to whom the Gods have granted immortality.[72]
Francisco, an indologist from the University of the Philippines Manila, believed that the Ramayana narrative arrived in the Philippines some time between the 17th to 19th centuries, via interactions with Javanese and Malaysian cultures which traded extensively with India.[74]: 101
By the time it was documented in the 1960s, the character names, place names, and the precise episodes and events in Maharadia Lawana's narrative already had some notable differences from those of the Ramayana. Francisco believed that this was a sign of "indigenization", and suggested that some changes had already been introduced in Malaysia and Java even before the story was heard by the Maranao, and that upon reaching the Maranao homeland, the story was "further indigenized to suit Philippine cultural perspectives and orientations."[74]: "103"
Thailand
Thailand's popular national epic Ramakien (Thai: รามเกียรติ์, from rāmakīrti, 'glory of Ram') is derived from the Hindu epic. In Ramakien, Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari (thotsakan and montho). Vibhishana (phiphek), the astrologer brother of Ravana, predicts the death of Ravana from Sita's horoscope. Ravana throws her into the water, but she is later rescued by Janaka (chanok).[59]: 149
While the main story is identical to that of Ramayana, many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.
Critical edition
A
Commentaries
It is said that there are around thirty three commentaries for Ramayana.[77] Some of the commentaries on Ramayana include Mahesvara Tirtha's tattvadīpa (also known as tattvadīpika), Govindaraja's bhūṣaṇa (also known as govindarājīyam), Sivasahaya's śiromaṇi, Mahadeva Yogi's amṛtakaṭaka, Ramanuja's rāmānujīyam, Ahobala's taniclōkī and tilaka by Nagoji Bhatta or Ramavarma.[78] The three commentaries tilaka, bhūṣaṇa and śiromaṇi are known as ṭīkātraya (i.e. commentary trio) and are more popular.[79]
Influence of Ramayana
One of the most important literary works of
Ramayanic scenes have also been depicted through
The Ramayana became popular in
In
Ramayana has also been depicted in many paintings, notably by the
also depicted Ramayana in 1972. The painting is currently in the permanent collection of the Malaysian National Visual Arts Gallery.In modern popular culture
Multiple modern, English-language adaptations of the epic exist, namely Ram Chandra Series by Amish Tripathi, Ramayana Series by Ashok Banker and a mythopoetic novel, Asura: Tale of the Vanquished by Anand Neelakantan. Another Indian author, Devdutt Pattanaik, has published three different retellings and commentaries of Ramayana titled Sita, The Book Of Ram and Hanuman's Ramayan. A number of plays, movies and television serials have also been produced based upon the Ramayana.[82]
Stage
One of the best known Ramayana plays is Gopal Sharman's The Ramayana, a contemporary interpretation in English, of the great epic based on the Valmiki Ramayana. The play has had more than 3,000 performances all over the world, mostly as a one-woman performance by actress Jalabala Vaidya, wife of the playwright Gopal Sharman. The Ramayana has been performed on Broadway, London's West End, United Nations Headquarters, the Smithsonian Institution among other international venue and in more than 35 cities and towns in India.
Starting in 1978 and under the supervision of Baba Hari Dass, Ramayana has been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in Watsonville, California.[83]
In the Philippines, a jazz ballet production was produced in the 1970s entitled "Rama at Sita" (Rama and Sita). The production was a result of a collaboration of four National Artists, Bienvenido Lumbera's libretto (National Artist for Literature), production design by Salvador Bernal (National Artist for Stage Design), music by Ryan Cayabyab (National Artist for Music) and choreography by Alice Reyes (National Artist for Dance).[84]
Plays
- Kanchana Sita, Saketham and Lankalakshmi – award-winning trilogy by Malayalam playwright C. N. Sreekantan Nair
- Lankeswaran – a play by the award-winning Tamil cinema actor R. S. Manohar
- Kecak - a Balinese traditional folk dance which plays and tells the story of Ramayan
Books
- Ramayana by C. Rajagopalachari
- The Ramayana by R. K. Narayan
- Ramayana series by King of Ayodhya, Vengeance of Ravana and Sons of Sita.
- Rama Chandra Series by Amish Tripathi, a fictional retelling of the Ramayana. It has four books until now — Ram: Scion of Ikshvaku, Sita: Warrior of Mithila, Raavan: Enemy of Aryavarta and The War of Lanka
Movies
- Lanka Dahan (1917)
- Ram Rajya (1943)
- Rambaan (1948)
- Ramayan (1954)
- Sampoorna Ramayanam (1958)
- Sampoorna Ramayana (1961)
- Lava Kusa (1963)
- Sampoorna Ramayanamu(1971)
- Sita Kalyanam(1976)
- Sri Rama Pattabhishekam (1978)
- Kanchana Sita (1977)
- Ramayana: The Legend of Prince Rama (1992)
- Ramayanam(1996)
- Lav Kush (1997)
- Opera Jawa (2008)
- Sita Sings the Blues (2008)
- Ramayana: The Epic (2010)
- Lava Kusa: The Warrior Twins (2010)
- Raavanan (2010)
- Raavan(2010)
- Sri Rama Rajyam (2011)
- Yak: The Giant King (2012)
- Mantra Warrior: The Legend of the Eight Moons (2023)
- Adipurush (2023)
TV series
- Ramayan – originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced by Ramanand Sagar in 1987
- Luv Kush – originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced by Ramanand Sagar in 1988
- Jai Hanuman – originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced and directed by Sanjay Khan
- Vishnu Puran (TV series) – originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced by B. R. Chopra in 2000
- Ramayan (2002) – originally broadcast on Zee TV, produced by B.R. Chopra
- Ramayan (2008) – originally broadcast on Imagine TV, produced by Sagar Enterprise
- Ramayan(2012) – a remake of the 1987 series and aired on Zee TV
- Raavan – series on life of Ravana based on Ramayana. Originally broadcast on Zee TV
- Sony TV
- Star Plus, originally broadcast from 16 November 2015 to 4 November 2016 series based on "Ramayan", showing Ramayan from Sita's prospective
- Rama Siya Ke Luv Kush – 2019 series based on Uttar Ramayan, showing the life of children of Rama Sita, Kush and Luv broadcasting on Colors TV
- The Legend of Hanuman – A 2021 OTT animated version of the Ramayana from Hanuman's point of perspective. It depicts the 2nd–5th Kandas of the Ramayana aired on Disney+ Hotstar.
- "Shrimad Ramayan" - 2024 Indian Television Sitcom, airing on Sony Entertainment Television
Video games
- Fate/Grand Order features Rama and Sita as "Servants", powerful familiars based on legendary and historical figures. Their doomed love and separation is literally cursed to repeat; in the story, they are summoned at opposite ends of the United States and Rama succumbs to his wounds just after finally reaching Sita.
Nomenclatures
Ramayana has had a profound influence on India and Indians across the geographical and historical space. Rampur is the most common name for villages and towns across the nation particularly UP, Bihar and West Bengal.[85] It is so common that people have been using Ram Ram as a greeting to each other.[86][87]
Notes
- ^ Retellings include:
- Kamban's Ramavataram in Tamil (c. 11th–12th century)
- Champu Ramayanam[8] of Bhoja (c. 11th century)
- Kumudendu Muni' s Kumudendu Ramayana (a Jain version) (c. 13th century) and Narahari's Torave Ramayana in Kannada(c. 16th-century)
- Ranganatha Ramayanam in Telugu(c. 13th century)
- Madhava Kandali's Saptakhanda Ramayana in Assamese (c. 14th century)
- Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan (also known as Shri Ram Panchali) in Bengali (c. 15th century)
- Bhavarth Ramayan (c. 16th century) in Marathi
- Awadhi (which is an eastern form of Hindi)
- Adhyathmaramayanam (Kilippattu) in Malayalam(c. 17th century)
- Raghuveer Narayan's Vijay Nāyak Rāmāyana in Bhojpuri (c. 19th century)
References
- ^ "Ramayana" Archived 4 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
- ^ "Ramayana | Meaning of Ramayana by Lexico". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 19 February 2020.
- ^ The Rámáyan of Válmíki.
- ^ "Ramayana | Summary, Characters, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 12 April 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
- ^ Goldman 1984, p. 20–23.
- ^ a b Pattanaik, Devdutt (8 August 2020). "Was Ram born in Ayodhya". mumbaimirror. Archived from the original on 14 August 2020. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ ISBN 90-04-10260-4.
- ^ Malwa), Bhojarāja (King of (1924). Champu-Ramayana (in Sanskrit). Pandurang Jawali.
- ISBN 9788120602298. Archivedfrom the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
- ISBN 9788179920022. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
- ISBN 9788172015077. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
- ISBN 9789350001073. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
- ^ Monier Monier Williams, राम Archived 8 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology
- ^ Monier Monier Williams, रात्रि Archived 8 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology
- ^ Monier Monier Williams, अयन Archived 19 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology
- ISBN 9789387326262. Archivedfrom the original on 3 April 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-0-313-07155-3.
- ^ a b "Valmiki Ramayana". valmikiramayan.net. Archived from the original on 13 September 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
- ^ Arshia Sattar (2016) the most important fact is "Uttarkanda" is not written by Rishi Valmiki. Why the Uttara Kanda changes the way the Ramayana should be read Archived 16 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Scroll.in
- ISBN 978-0-14-311180-1.
- ^ Goldman 1984, p. 20–22.
- ^ Goldman 1984, p. 23, "[W]e feel that it is extremely unlikely that the archetype of the Valmiki Ramayana can be much earlier than the beginning of the seventh century B.C., although it is impossible to demonstrate this with any sort of rigor".
- ^ Goldman 1984, p. 21–22: "[I]n the Balakanda, as in the central five books of the epic, the kingdom of Kosala is represented as being at the height of its power and prosperity, governed from a major urban settlement called Ayodhya, [o]nly at the very end of the Uttara-kanda, [the] epilogue to the poem [w]e find reference to Sravasti as a successor capital. [A]s Jacobi also pointed out, the capital city of the unified realm of Kosala is invariably known as Ayodhya in the epic and never by the name Saketa, the name by which it comes to be known in much of Buddhist and later literature".
- ^ Goldman & Sutherland Goldman 2022, p. 3: "The oldest surviving version of the great tale of Rāma, and the one that is doubtless the direct or indirect source of all of the hundreds and perhaps thousands of other versions of the story, is the monumental, mid-first millennium BCE epic poem in some twenty-five thousand Sanskrit couplets attributed to Vālmīki".
- ISBN 9788120831629
- ^ Mukherjee Pandey, Jhimli (18 December 2015). "6th-century Ramayana found in Kolkata, stuns scholars". timesofindia.indiatimes.com. TNN. Archived from the original on 19 December 2015. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
- ^ "The Cultural Heritage of India". The Religions. IV (The Ramakrishna Mission, Institute of Culture).
- ^ "Valmiki Ramayana – Critical Essays – M.R.Parameswaran".
- ^ a b c d Goldman 1984, Vol. I: Bālakāṇḍa.
- ^ "A tail's travel from Treta Yuga to DwaparaYuga" (PDF). shabdbooks.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 May 2022.
- ^ "Book VI : Yuddha Kanda, Sarga 115". sanskritdocuments.org. Archived from the original on 29 August 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2021.
- ^ "Book VI : Yuddha Kanda, Sarga 118". sanskritdocuments.org. Archived from the original on 12 September 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2021.
- ^ Dr. Jeayaram (18 March 2018). "Episode 312 – Significance of the "Sri-Ranga Vimaana"!!! – The Indian Dharma". theindiandharma.org.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0078-6.
- ISBN 978-1-139-82842-0.
- ^ Self-realization Magazine. Self-Realization Fellowship. 1971. pp. 50.
- ISBN 9780691225029.
- ISBN 978-0-14-310046-1. Archivedfrom the original on 18 January 2023. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
- OCLC 455121277.
- ^ "Islamic Art | Two Pages from the Ramayana Made for Akbar's mother, Hamidah Banu Begum". Khalili Collections. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
- ISBN 9780816075645. Archivedfrom the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
- ^ Mehta, Mona (10 July 2011). "Gond Ramayani". Times of India. Archived from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
- ^ P, Jhimli Mukherjee; Dec 18, ey / TNN / Updated (18 December 2015). "6th-century Ramayana found in Kolkata, stuns scholars | Kolkata News – Times of India". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "6th century Ramayana manuscript Found in Kolkata | Stuns Scholars". YouTube. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
- ^ Sattar, Arshia (29 October 2016). "Why the Uttara Kanda changes the way the Ramayana should be read". Scroll.in. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
- ^ Dakshinamurthy, A (July 2015). "Akananuru: Neytal – Poem 70". Akananuru. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
- ISBN 9780231115629.
- ^ Kalakam, Turaicămip Pillai, ed. (1950). Purananuru. Madras.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Dikshitar, V R Ramachandra (1939). The Silappadikaram. Madras, British India: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
- ^ Pandian, Pichai Pillai (1931). Cattanar's Manimekalai. Madras: Saiva Siddhanta Works. Retrieved 30 July 2019.
- ^ Aiyangar, Rao Bahadur Krishnaswami (1927). Manimekhalai In Its Historical Setting. London: Luzac & Co. Retrieved 30 July 2019.
- ^ Shattan, Merchant-Prince (1989). Daniélou, Alain (ed.). Manimekhalai: The Dancer With the Magic Bowl. New York: New Directions.
- ^ Hooper, John Stirling Morley (1929). Hymns of the Alvars. Calcutta: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 30 July 2019.
- ^ Rajagopalan, K.R., “Development of Karnataka Music”, Swami Prajanananda Felicitation Volume, Calcutta (under print)
- ^ Rajagopalan, K. R. (1978). Seerkazhi Arunachala Kavirayar and Rama Natakam. Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi.
- (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2021.
- ^ a b c Ramanujan, A.K (2004). The Collected Essays of A.K. Ramanujan (PDF) (4. impr. ed.). New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 145. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016.
- ^ "Ramayana Kakawin Vol. 1". archive.org.
- ^ "The Kakawin Ramayana – an old Javanese rendering of the …". www.nas.gov.sg. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
- ^ Ardianty, Dini (8 June 2015). "Perbedaan Ramayana – Mahabarata dalam Kesusastraan Jawa Kuna dan India" (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ "Prambanan – Taman Wisata Candi". borobudurpark.com. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
- ^ Indonesia, Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia / National Library of. "Panataran Temple (East Java) – Temples of Indonesia". candi.pnri.go.id. Archived from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
- ^ Joefe B. Santarita (2013), Revisiting Swarnabhumi/dvipa: Indian Influences in Ancient Southeast Asia
- ^ Planet, Lonely. "Bali Kecak Dance, Fire Dance and Sanghyang Dance Evening Tour in Indonesia". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ "THE KEEPERS: CNN Introduces Guardians of Indonesia's Rich Cultural Traditions". www.indonesia.travel. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ISBN 9789794618103.
- ^ Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1898. pp. 107–.
- ^ Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1898. pp. 143–.
- ^ ISBN 9780810875111.
- ^ Francisco, Juan R. "Maharadia Lawana" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2015.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ JSTOR 42633135.
- ^ "Ramayana Translation Project turns its last page, after four decades of research | Berkeley News". news.berkeley.edu. 17 November 2016. Archived from the original on 9 February 2017. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
- ^ "UC Berkeley researchers complete decades-long translation project | The Daily Californian". dailycal.org. 21 November 2016. Archived from the original on 12 December 2016. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
- (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
- ^ "English Commentaries". IIT Kanpur. Archived from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
- ^ "Sundarakanda". Kasarabada Trust. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-7305-345-0.
- ^ Donald Frazier (11 February 2016). "On Java, a Creative Explosion in an Ancient City". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-8223-2390-7.
- ^ "Ramayana! – The Musical". Mount Madonna School. Archived from the original on 25 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
- ^ Philippines, Cultural Center of the. "BALLET PHILIPPINES' RAMA, HARI | Cultural Center of the Philippines". BALLET PHILIPPINES' RAMA, HARI. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
- ^ "Someone Plotted All The Villages Named 'Rampur' In India And Came Up With This Map". IndiaTimes. 24 September 2020. Archived from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
- ^ admin (3 January 2022). "Why Hindus say Ram Ram?". Beauty Of India. Archived from the original on 3 April 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
- ^ sanskar, hindu (23 May 2020). "Why do we say Ram Ram as greeting?". Hindu-Sanskar. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
Sources
- Arya, Ravi Prakash (ed.).Ramayana of Valmiki: Sanskrit Text and English Translation. (English translation according to M. N. Dutt, introduction by Dr. Ramashraya Sharma, 4-volume set) Parimal Publications: Delhi, 1998, ISBN 81-7110-156-9
- Bhattacharji, Sukumari (1998). Legends of Devi. Orient Blackswan. p. 111. ISBN 978-81-250-1438-6.
- Brockington, John (2003). "The Sanskrit Epics". In Flood, Gavin (ed.). Blackwell companion to Hinduism. ISBN 0-631-21535-2.
- ISBN 978-0-520-22703-3.
- Dutt, Romesh C. (2004). Ramayana. Kessinger Publishing. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-4191-4387-8.
- Dutt, Romesh Chunder (2002). The Ramayana and Mahabharata condensed into English verse. Courier Dover Publications. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-486-42506-1.
- Fallon, Oliver (2009). Bhatti's Poem: The Death of Rávana (Bhaṭṭikāvya). New York: New York University Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-2778-2. Archived from the originalon 16 March 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- Goldman, Robert P (1984). The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: An Epic of Ancient India, Vol. I, Bālakānda (PDF). Princeton University Press. ISBN 81-208-3162--4.
- Goldman, Robert P. (1990). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Balakanda. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01485-2.
- Goldman, Robert P. (1994). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Kiskindhakanda. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-06661-5.
- Goldman, Robert P. (1996). The Ramayana of Valmiki: Sundarakanda. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-06662-2.
- Goldman, Robert P.; Sutherland Goldman, Sally J. (2022). The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: The Complete English Translation. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691206868.
- Keshavadas, Sadguru Sant (1988). Ramayana at a Glance. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 211. ISBN 978-81-208-0545-3.
- B. B. Lal (2008). Rāma, His Historicity, Mandir, and Setu: Evidence of Literature, Archaeology, and Other Sciences. Aryan Books. ISBN 978-81-7305-345-0.
- Mahulikar, Dr. Gauri. Effect Of Ramayana On Various Cultures And Civilisations, Ramayan Institute
- Rabb, Kate Milner, National Epics, 1896 – see eText Archived 14 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine in Project Gutenberg
- Murthy, S. S. N. (November 2003). "A note on the Ramayana" (PDF). Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 10 (6). New Delhi: 1–18. ISSN 1084-7561. Archived from the original(PDF) on 8 August 2012.
- Prabhavananda, Swami (1979). The Spiritual Heritage of India. Vedanta Press. p. 374. )
- Raghunathan, N. (transl.), Srimad Valmiki Ramayanam, Vighneswara Publishing House, Madras (1981)
- Rohman, Todd (2009). "The Classical Period". In Watling, Gabrielle; Quay, Sara (eds.). Cultural History of Reading: World literature. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-33744-4.
- ISBN 978-0-14-029866-6.
- ISBN 9789831002346. Archivedfrom the original on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 4 December 2020.
- Sundararajan, K.R. (1989). "The Ideal of Perfect Life : The Ramayana". In Krishna Sivaraman; Bithika Mukerji (eds.). Hindu spirituality: Vedas through Vedanta. The Crossroad Publishing Co. pp. 106–126. ISBN 978-0-8245-0755-8.
- A different Song – Article from "The Hindu" 12 August 2005 – "The Hindu : Entertainment Thiruvananthapuram / Music : A different song". Hinduonnet.com. 12 August 2005. Archived from the original on 27 October 2010. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - Valmiki's Ramayana illustrated with Indian miniatures from the 16th to the 19th century Archived 18 April 2021 at the ISBN 9782903656768
Further reading
- Sanskrit text
- Electronic version of the Sanskrit text, input by Muneo Tokunaga
- Sanskrit text on GRETIL
- Translations
- Valmiki Ramayana verse translation by Desiraju Hanumanta Rao, K. M. K. Murthy et al.
- [1] translation of valmiki ramayana including Uttara Khanda
- Valmiki Ramayana translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith (1870–1874) (Project Gutenberg)
- Prose translation of the complete Ramayana by M. N. Dutt (1891–1894): Balakandam, Ayodhya kandam, Aranya kandam, Kishkindha kandam, Sundara Kandam, Yuddha Kandam, Uttara Kandam
- Jain Ramayana of Hemchandra English translation; seventh book of the Trishashti Shalaka Purusha Caritra; 1931
- Summary of The Ramayana Summary of Maurice Winternitz, A History of Indian Literature, trans. by S. Ketkar.
- The Ramayana condensed into English verse by R. C. Dutt (1899) at archive.org
- Rāma the Steadfast: an early form of the Rāmāyaṇa translated by J. L. Brockington and Mary Brockington. Penguin, 2006. ISBN 0-14-044744-X.
- Secondary sources
- Jain, Meenakshi. (2013). Rama and Ayodhya. Aryan Books International, 2013.
External links
- Ramayana at Project Gutenberg
- The Ramayana of Valmiki English translation by Hari Prasad Shastri, 1952 (revised edition with interwoven glossary)
- A condensed verse translation by Romesh Chunder Dutt sponsored by the Liberty Fund
- Ramayan public domain audiobook at LibriVox
- Absolute dating of Ramayana
- Collection: Art of the Ramayana from the University of Michigan Museum of Art