Rapeseed
Rapeseed | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Brassicales |
Family: | Brassicaceae |
Genus: | Brassica |
Species: | B. napus
|
Binomial name | |
Brassica napus |
Rapeseed (Brassica napus subsp. napus), also known as oilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family
Description
Brassica napus grows to 100 centimetres (39 inches) in height with hairless, fleshy,
Rapeseed flowers are bright yellow and about 17 millimetres (3⁄4 in) across.
The rapeseed pods are green and elongated
Similar species
B. napus can be distinguished from
Taxonomy
The species Brassica napus belongs to the flowering plant family Brassicaceae. Rapeseed is a subspecies with the autonym B. napus subsp. napus.[10] It encompasses winter and spring oilseed, vegetable and fodder rape.[11] Siberian kale is a distinct leaf rape form variety (B. napus var. pabularia) which used to be common as a winter-annual vegetable.[12][11] The second subspecies of B. napus is B. napus subsp. rapifera (also subsp. napobrassica; the rutabaga, swede, or yellow turnip).[13][14]
B. napus is a digenomic
Etymology
The term "rape" derives from the Latin word for turnip, rāpa or rāpum, cognate with the Greek word ῥάφη, rhaphe.[17]
Ecology
In Northern Ireland, B. napus and B. rapa are recorded as escapes in roadside verges and waste ground.[18]
Cultivation
Crops from the genus Brassica, including rapeseed, were among the earliest plants to be widely cultivated by humankind as early as 10,000 years ago. Rapeseed was being cultivated in India as early as 4000 B.C. and it spread to China and Japan 2000 years ago.[11]
Rapeseed oil is predominantly cultivated in its winter form in most of Europe and Asia due to the requirement of vernalization to start the process of flowering. It is sown in autumn and remains in a leaf rosette on the soil surface during the winter. The plant grows a long vertical stem in the next spring followed by lateral branch development. It generally flowers in late spring with the process of pod development and ripening occurring over a period of 6–8 weeks until midsummer.[8]
In Europe, winter rapeseed is grown as an annual break crop in three to four-year rotations with cereals such as
Spring rapeseed is cultivated in Canada, northern Europe and Australia as it is not winter-hardy and does not require vernalization. The crop is sown in spring with stem development happening immediately after germination.[8]
Rapeseed can be cultivated on a wide variety of well-drained soils, prefers a pH between 5.5 and 8.3 and has a moderate tolerance of soil salinity.[21] It is predominantly a wind-pollinated plant but shows significantly increased grain yields when bee-pollinated,[22] almost double the final yield[23] but the effect is cultivar dependent.[24] It is currently grown with high levels of nitrogen-containing fertilisers, and the manufacture of these generates N2O. An estimated 3–5% of nitrogen provided as fertilizer for rapeseed is converted to N2O.[25]
Rapeseed has a high demand for nutrients - in particular, its sulphur demand is the highest among all arable crops. Since the decrease of atmospheric sulphur inputs during the 1980s sulphur fertilization has become a standard measure in oilseed rape production.[26][27] Among the micronutrients, special attention in rapeseed cultivation has to be given to boron,[28] manganese[29] and molybdenum.[30]
Climate change
The cultivatable range for rapeseed is both expected to decrease due to climate change, and where rapeseed is grown quality of the crop, in both yield and volume of oil is expected to decrease substantially.[31] Some researchers recommend finding alternative varieties of Brassica for cultivation.[31]
Diseases
The main diseases of the winter rapeseed crop are
Pests
Rapeseed is attacked by a wide variety of insects,
Genetics and breeding
In 2014 an
History of the cultivars
In 1973, Canadian
The anticipated damages of wild animals caused by foraging on 00-oilseed rape crops was caused by a shift of the animals diet towards increased uptake protein and sulphur containing metabolites at the expense of fibers, but not to specific features of the genetically altered 00-varieties.[47]
Following the European Parliament's
A
GMO cultivars
The
In a closely followed legal battle, the
Production
The Food and Agriculture Organization reports global production of 36 million metric tons (40 million short tons; 35 million long tons) in the 2003–2004 season, and an estimated 58.4 million metric tons (64.4 million short tons; 57.5 million long tons) in the 2010–2011 season.[51]
Worldwide production of rapeseed (including canola) has increased sixfold between 1975 and 2007. The production of canola and rapeseed since 1975 has opened up the edible oil market for rapeseed oil. Since 2002, production of biodiesel has been steadily increasing in EU and U.S. to 6 million metric tons (6.6 million short tons; 5.9 million long tons) in 2006. Rapeseed oil is positioned to supply a good portion of the vegetable oils needed to produce that fuel. World production was thus expected to trend further upward between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect.[52]
Country | 1965 | 1975 | 1985 | 1995 | 2000 | 2005 | 2007 | 2009 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Canada | 0.5 | 1.8 | 3.5 | 6.4 | 7.2 | 9.4 | 9.4 | 11.8 | 14.2 | 15.4 | 17.9 | 15.5 | 18.4 | 18.4 | 21.3 | 20.3 | 18.6 | 19.5 |
China | 1.1 | 1.5 | 5.6 | 9.8 | 11.3 | 13 | 10.5 | 13.5 | 13.4 | 14 | 14.4 | 14.8 | 14.9 | 15.3 | 13.3 | 13.3 | 13.5 | 14 |
India | 1.5 | 2.3 | 3.1 | 5.8 | 5.8 | 7.6 | 7.4 | 7.2 | 8.2 | 6.8 | 7.8 | 7.9 | 6.3 | 6.8 | 7.9 | 8.4 | 9.3 | 9.1 |
France | 0.3 | 0.5 | 1.4 | 2.8 | 3.5 | 4.5 | 4.7 | 5.6 | 5.4 | 5.5 | 4.4 | 5.5 | 5.3 | 4.7 | 5.3 | 5 | 3.5 | 3.3 |
Ukraine | <0.007 | <0.06 | <0.03 | <0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 1.9 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 2.4 | 2.2 | 1.7 | 1.1 | 2.2 | 2.8 | 3.3 | 0.6 |
Germany | 0.3 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 3.1 | 3.6 | 5.0 | 5.3 | 6.3 | 3.9 | 4.8 | 5.8 | 6.2 | 5.0 | 4.6 | 4.3 | 3.7 | 2.8 | 3.5 |
Australia | <0.007 | <0.06 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 1.8 | 1.4 | 1.1 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 3.4 | 4.1 | 3.8 | 3.5 | 2.9 | 4.3 | 3.9 | 2.4 | 2.3 |
Poland | 0.5 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 1.4 | 1.0 | 1.4 | 2.1 | 2.5 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 2.7 | 3.3 | 2.7 | 2.2 | 2.7 | 2.1 | 2.3 | 3.0 |
Russia | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 2.1 | 2.6 |
United Kingdom | <0.007 | 0.06 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.9 | 2.1 | 2.0 | 2.8 | 2.6 | 2.1 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 1.8 | 2.2 | 2.0 | 1.8 | 1.0 |
United States | <0.007 | <0.06 | <0.03 | 0.2 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.6 |
Czech Republic | 0.07 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 1.2 |
Hungary | 0.008 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.9 |
Romania | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 1.3 | 1.7 | 1.6 | 0.8 | 0.8 |
Denmark | 0.05 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.6 |
Lithuania | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.02 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 1.0 |
Belarus | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.7 |
World Total | 5.2 | 8.8 | 19.2 | 34.2 | 39.5 | 46.4 | 50.5 | 61.6 | 62.5 | 64.8 | 72.5 | 73.8 | 71.2 | 68.9 | 76.6 | 75.2 | 70.5 | 72.4 |
Uses
Rapeseed is grown for the production of edible vegetable oils, animal feed, and biodiesel. Rapeseed was the third-leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, after soybean and palm oil.[2] It is the world's second-leading source of protein meal after soybean.[3]
Vegetable oil
Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils, but historically was used in limited quantities due to high levels of
Animal feed
Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct. The byproduct is a high-protein animal feed, competitive with soybean. Rapeseed is an excellent
Biodiesel
Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as biodiesel, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock,[citation needed] partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower gel point than most other vegetable oils.
Because of the changes to the environment caused by climate change, a 2018 study predicted that rapeseed would become an unreliable source of oil for biofuels.[31]
Other
Rapeseed is also used as a cover crop in the US during the winter as it prevents soil erosion, produces large amounts of biomass, suppresses weeds and can improve soil tilth with its root system. Some cultivars of rapeseed are also used as annual forage and are ready for grazing livestock 80 to 90 days after planting.[21]
Rapeseed has a high
As a biolubricant, rapeseed has possible uses for bio-medical applications (e.g., lubricants for artificial joints) and the use of personal lubricant for sexual purposes.[63] Biolubricant containing 70% or more canola/rapeseed oil has replaced petroleum-based chainsaw oil in Austria although it is typically more expensive.[64]
Rapeseed has been researched as a means of containing radionuclides that contaminated the soil after the Chernobyl disaster[65][66] as it has a rate of uptake up to three times more than other grains, and only about 3 to 6% of the radionuclides go into the oilseeds.[65]
Rapeseed meal can be incorporated into the
: 39See also
Explanatory notes
- ^ Brassica napus was originally described and published in Species Plantarum 2:666. 1753.[1]
References
Citations
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- ^ a b c Snowdon, Lühs & Friedt 2006, p. 56.
- ^ a b Alford 2008, pp. 1–2.
- ^ GRIN 2012a.
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- ^ GRIN 2010b.
- ^ GRIN 2012b.
- ^ NCBI 2013.
- ^ Downey & Rimmer 1993, p. 6.
- ^ Downey & Rimmer 1993, p. 7.
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- ^ Alford 2008, p. 4.
- ^ a b AgMRC 2018.
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- ^ Lindström et al. 2015, p. 759.
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- ^ Alford 2008, p. 9.
- ^ Hulse-Kemp et al. 2015, p. 1188.
- ^ Rasheed et al. 2017, p. 1050.
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- ^ Thiyam-Holländer, Eskin & Matthäus 2013, p. 4.
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- ^ [Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2005) Sulphur deficiency symptoms in oilseed rape (Brassica Napus L.) – The aesthetics of starvation. Phyton 45(3), 79-95, 2005.]
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- ^ [Häberli, R., Wahli, T., Haneklaus, S. and Schnug, E. (1995) Field studies on clinical and pathological changes caused by double low oilseed rape in a wild roe deer (Capreola capreola) population in Switzerland. Proc. 9th Int. Rapeseed Congress 4, 1415-1417, Cambridge, UK]
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- ^ "Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade" (PDF). Foreign Agricultural Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
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- ^ O'Brien 2008, p. 37.
- ^ Sahasrabudhe 1977, p. 323.
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Reddy, Parvatha (2013). Recent Advances in Crop Protection. S2CID 13212055.
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External links
- Media related to Brassica napus at Wikimedia Commons
- Media related to Rapeseed oil at Wikimedia Commons