Rapeseed oil
Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known
Canola oil is a food-grade version derived from rapeseed cultivars specifically bred for low erucic acid content. It is also known as low erucic acid rapeseed (LEAR) oil and is
In commerce, non-food varieties are typically called colza oil.[7]
Rapeseed is extensively cultivated in Canada, France, Belgium, Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Poland, and Slovenia. In France and Denmark especially, the extraction of the oil is an important industry.
History
The name for rapeseed comes from the
Canola was bred from rapeseed cultivars of B. napus and B. rapa at the University of Manitoba, Canada, by Keith Downey and Baldur R. Stefansson in the early 1970s,[10][11] having then a different nutritional profile than present-day oil in addition to much less erucic acid.[12] Canola was originally a trademark name of the Rapeseed Association of Canada; the name is a portmanteau of "can" from Canada and "ola" from "oil, low acid".[13][14] Canola is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed oil in North America and Australasia;[15] the change in name also serves to distinguish it from natural rapeseed oil, which has much higher erucic acid content.[16]
A
A 2010 study conducted in North Dakota found glyphosate- or glufosinate-resistance transgenes in 80% of wild natural rapeseed plants, and a few plants that were resistant to both herbicides. This may reduce the effectiveness of the herbicide tolerance trait for weed control over time, as the weed species could also become tolerant to the herbicide. However, one of the researchers agrees that "feral populations could have become established after trucks carrying cultivated GM seeds spilled some of their load during transportation". She also notes that the GM canola results they found may have been biased as they only sampled along roadsides.[20]
Genetically modified canola attracts a price penalty compared to non-GM canola; in Western Australia, it is estimated to be 7.2% on average.[21]
Production and trade
Country | millions of tonnes |
---|---|
Canada | 4.2 |
China | 3.1 |
India | 2.5 |
France | 1.7 |
World total | 24.4 |
In 2019, world production of rapeseed oil was 24 million tonnes, led by Canada, China, and India as the largest producers, accounting together for 40% of the world total.[22] Canada was the world's largest exporter of rapeseed oil in 2019, shipping 3.2 million tonnes or approximately 76% of its total production.[22]
The benchmark price for worldwide canola trade is the ICE Futures Canada (formerly Winnipeg Commodity Exchange) canola futures contract.[23]
In China, rapeseed meal is mostly used as a soil fertilizer rather than for animal feed,[24] while canola is used mainly for frying food. In the words of one observer, "China has a vegetable oil supply shortage of 20 million tonnes per year. It covers a large percentage of that shortage with soybean imports from Brazil, the U.S. and Argentina."[25]
GMO regulation
There are several forms of genetic modification, such as herbicide (glyphosate and glufosinate, for example) tolerance and different qualities in canola oil. Regulation varies from country to country; for example, glyphosate-resistant canola has been approved in Australia, Canada, China, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Philippines, and the US, while Laurical, a product with a different oil composition, has been approved for growing only in Canada and the US.[26]
In 2003, Australia's gene technology regulator approved the release of canola genetically modified to make it resistant to
GMO litigation
Genetically modified canola has become a point of controversy and contentious legal battles. In one high-profile case (
Production process
Canola oil is made at a processing facility by slightly heating and then crushing the seed.[34] Almost all commercial canola oil is then extracted using hexane solvent,[35] which is recovered at the end of processing. Finally, the canola oil is refined using water precipitation and organic acid to remove gums and free fatty acids, filtering to remove color, and deodorizing using steam distillation.[34] Sometimes the oil is also bleached for a lighter color.[36] The average density of canola oil is 0.92 g/ml (7.7 lb/US gal; 9.2 lb/imp gal).[37]
Cold-pressed and expeller-pressed canola oil are also produced on a more limited basis. About 44% of a seed is oil, with the remainder as a canola meal used for animal feed.[34] About 23 kg (51 lb) of canola seed makes 10 L (2.64 US gal) of canola oil. Canola oil is a key ingredient in many foods. Its reputation as a healthful oil has created high demand in markets around the world,[38] and overall it is the third-most widely consumed vegetable oil, after soybean oil and palm oil.[39]
The oil has many non-food uses and, like soybean oil, is often used interchangeably with
, candles, lipsticks, and newspaper inks.Canola vegetable oils certified as organic are required to be from non-GMO rapeseed.[40]
Nutrition and health
Nutritional value per 100 grams | |
---|---|
Energy | 3,701 kJ (885 kcal) |
0 g | |
Starch | 0 g |
Sugars | 0 g |
Dietary fiber | 0 g |
100 g | |
Saturated | 7.4 g |
Trans | 0.4 g |
Monounsaturated | 63.3 g |
Polyunsaturated | 28.1 g 8 g 20 g |
0 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 0% 0 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 0% 0 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 0% 0 mg |
Folate (B9) | 0% 0 μg |
Vitamin B12 | 0% 0 μg |
Vitamin C | 0% 0 mg |
Vitamin E | 117% 17.5 mg |
Vitamin K | 68% 71.3 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 0% 0 mg |
Iron | 0% 0 mg |
Magnesium | 0% 0 mg |
Manganese | 0% 0 mg |
Phosphorus | 0% 0 mg |
Potassium | 0% 0 mg |
Sodium | 0% 0 mg |
Zinc | 0% 0 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 0 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults.[41] |
Canola oil is considered safe for human consumption,[42][43] and has a relatively low amount of saturated fat, a substantial amount of monounsaturated fat, with roughly a 2:1 mono- to polyunsaturated fats ratio.[44]
In 2006, canola oil was given a qualified
A 2019 review of randomized clinical trials found that canola oil consumption reduces total cholesterol (TC) and LDL compared to sunflower oil and saturated fat.[47] Consumption of canola oil has been shown to reduce body weight when compared with saturated fat.[48]
Regarding individual components, canola oil is low in saturated fat and contains both omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in a ratio of 2:1. It is high in monounsaturated fats, which may decrease the risk of heart disease.[49]
Erucic acid
Compound | Family | % of total |
---|---|---|
Oleic acid | ω-9 | 61%[50] |
Linoleic acid | ω-6 | 21%[50] |
Alpha-linolenic acid
|
ω-3 | 11%[50] 9%[51][52] |
Saturated fatty acids
|
7%[50] | |
Palmitic acid | 4%[51] | |
Stearic acid | 2%[51] | |
Trans fat | 0.4%[53] | |
Erucic acid | 0.01%[54] <0.1%[55][56] |
Although wild rapeseed oil contains significant amounts of erucic acid,[57] the cultivars used to produce commercial, food-grade canola oil were bred to contain less than 2% erucic acid,[4] an amount deemed not significant as a health risk. The low-erucic trait was due to two mutations changing the activity of LEA1 and KCS17.[58][59]
The erucic acid content in canola oil has been reduced over the years. In western Canada, a reduction occurred from the average content of 0.5% between 1987 and 1996[60] to a current content of 0.01% from 2008 to 2015.[54] Other reports also show a content lower than 0.1% in Australia[55] and Brazil.[56]
To date, no health effects have been associated with dietary consumption of erucic acid by humans; but tests of erucic acid metabolism in other species imply that higher levels may be detrimental.
It is usually accepted that canola oil poses no unusual health risks for humans.
Glucosinolates
Another chemical change in canola is the reduction of
Further reduction of glucosinolate levels remains important for the use of rapeseed meal in animal feed.[66][67]
It is not completely clear which genetic changes from plant breeding resulted in the current reduction in this group of chemicals.[58]
Comparison to other vegetable oils
Type | Processing treatment[70] |
Saturated fatty acids |
Monounsaturated fatty acids |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids |
Smoke point | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total[68] | Oleic acid (ω-9) |
Total[68] | α-Linolenic acid (ω-3) |
Linoleic acid (ω-6) |
ω-6:3 ratio | ||||
Avocado[71] | 11.6 | 70.6 | 52–66 [72] |
13.5 | 1 | 12.5 | 12.5:1 | 250 °C (482 °F)[73] | |
Brazil nut[74] | 24.8 | 32.7 | 31.3 | 42.0 | 0.1 | 41.9 | 419:1 | 208 °C (406 °F)[75] | |
Canola[76] | 7.4 | 63.3 | 61.8 | 28.1 | 9.1 | 18.6 | 2:1 | 204 °C (400 °F)[77] | |
Coconut[78] | 82.5 | 6.3 | 6 | 1.7 | 0.019 | 1.68 | 88:1 | 175 °C (347 °F)[75] | |
Corn[79] | 12.9 | 27.6 | 27.3 | 54.7 | 1 | 58 | 58:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[77] | |
Cottonseed[80] | 25.9 | 17.8 | 19 | 51.9 | 1 | 54 | 54:1 | 216 °C (420 °F)[77] | |
Cottonseed[81] | hydrogenated |
93.6 | 1.5 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.5:1 | ||
Flaxseed/linseed[82] | 9.0 | 18.4 | 18 | 67.8 | 53 | 13 | 0.2:1 | 107 °C (225 °F) | |
Grape seed | 10.4 | 14.8 | 14.3 | 74.9 | 0.15 | 74.7 | very high | 216 °C (421 °F)[83] | |
Hemp seed[84] | 7.0 | 9.0 | 9.0 | 82.0 | 22.0 | 54.0 | 2.5:1 | 166 °C (330 °F)[85] | |
High-oleic safflower oil[86] |
7.5 | 75.2 | 75.2 | 12.8 | 0 | 12.8 | very high | 212 °C (414 °F)[75] | |
Olive, Extra Virgin[87] | 13.8 | 73.0 | 71.3 | 10.5 | 0.7 | 9.8 | 14:1 | 193 °C (380 °F)[75] | |
Palm[88] | 49.3 | 37.0 | 40 | 9.3 | 0.2 | 9.1 | 45.5:1 | 235 °C (455 °F) | |
Palm[89] | hydrogenated | 88.2 | 5.7 | 0 | |||||
Peanut[90] | 16.2 | 57.1 | 55.4 | 19.9 | 0.318 | 19.6 | 61.6:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[77] | |
Rice bran oil | 25 | 38.4 | 38.4 | 36.6 | 2.2 | 34.4[91] | 15.6:1 | 232 °C (450 °F)[92] | |
Sesame[93] | 14.2 | 39.7 | 39.3 | 41.7 | 0.3 | 41.3 | 138:1 | ||
Soybean[94] | 15.6 | 22.8 | 22.6 | 57.7 | 7 | 51 | 7.3:1 | 238 °C (460 °F)[77] | |
Soybean[95] | partially hydrogenated |
14.9 | 43.0 | 42.5 | 37.6 | 2.6 | 34.9 | 13.4:1 | |
Sunflower[96] | 8.99 | 63.4 | 62.9 | 20.7 | 0.16 | 20.5 | 128:1 | 227 °C (440 °F)[77] | |
Walnut oil[97] | unrefined | 9.1 | 22.8 | 22.2 | 63.3 | 10.4 | 52.9 | 5:1 | 160 °C (320 °F)[98] |
Uses
Apart from its use for human consumption, rapeseed oil is extensively used as a
Rapeseed oil was used in Gombault's Caustic Balsam,[101] a popular horse and human liniment at the turn of the 20th century.
Among the more unusual applications of rapeseed oil is the
Biodiesel
Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as biodiesel, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock,[citation needed] partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower gel point than most other vegetable oils.[citation needed]
Other edible rapeseed oils
Some less-processed versions of rapeseed oil are used for flavor in some countries. Chinese rapeseed oil was originally extracted from the
In India, mustard oil is used in cooking.[106] In the United Kingdom and Ireland, some chefs use a "cabbagey"-tasting rapeseed oil processed by cold-pressing.[107] This cold process means that the oil has a low smoke point, and is therefore unsuitable for frying in Sichuan cuisine, for example.[108]
Spanish rapeseed poisoning outbreak
In 1981, there was an oil poisoning outbreak, later known as toxic oil syndrome that was attributed to people consuming what they thought was olive oil but turned out to be rapeseed oil that had been
See also
- Botanol, a flooring material derived from canola oil
- List of canola diseases
- Triangle of U
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