Rapid transit

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Rapid Transit
)
For other uses, see Rapid transit (disambiguation).
"Mass rapid transit" redirects here. For other uses, see Mass rapid transit (disambiguation).
The London Underground is the world's first and oldest rapid transit system.
The New York City Subway is the world's largest single-operator rapid transit system by number of metro stations, at 472.
Metro in the world:[1]
Metro in one city
Metro in two or more cities
Metro under construction
Planned metro
No metro

Rapid transit or mass rapid transit (MRT), also known as heavy rail or metro, is a type of high-capacity

grade-separated in tunnels or on elevated railways
.

Modern services on rapid transit systems are provided on designated lines between

public transport authorities. Some rapid transit systems have at-grade intersections between a rapid transit line and a road or between two rapid transit lines.[7]

The world's first rapid transit system was the partially underground Metropolitan Railway which opened in 1863 using steam locomotives, and now forms part of the London Underground.[8] In 1868, New York opened the elevated West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway, initially a cable-hauled line using static steam engines.

As of 2021, China has the largest number of rapid transit systems in the world—40 in number,[9] running on over 4,500 km (2,800 mi) of track—and was responsible for most of the world's rapid-transit expansion in the 2010s.[10][11][12] The world's longest single-operator rapid transit system by route length is the Shanghai Metro.[13][14] The world's largest single rapid transit service provider by number of stations (472 stations in total)[15] is the New York City Subway. The busiest rapid transit systems in the world by annual ridership are the Shanghai Metro, Tokyo subway system, Seoul Metro and the Moscow Metro.

Terminology

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Main article: Passenger rail terminology
A crowded Paris Métro average station platform in 2007.
A station of the Guangzhou Metro in 2005.

The term Metro is the most commonly used term for underground rapid transit systems used by non-native English speakers.

U-Bahn) in German,[19] or the Tunnelbana (T-bana) in Swedish.[20] The use of viaducts inspires names such as elevated (L or el), skytrain,[21]
overhead, overground or Hochbahn in German. One of these terms may apply to an entire system, even if a large part of the network, for example, in outer suburbs, runs at ground level.

In most of

pedestrian underpass. The terms Underground and Tube are used for the London Underground. The North East England Tyne and Wear Metro, mostly overground, is known as the Metro. In Scotland, the Glasgow Subway
underground rapid transit system is known as the Subway.

Various terms are used for rapid transit systems around North America. The term metro is a shortened reference to a metropolitan area. Rapid transit systems such as the Washington Metro, Los Angeles Metro Rail, the Miami Metrorail, and the Montreal Metro are generally called the Metro. In Philadelphia, the term "El" is used for the Market–Frankford Line which runs mostly on an elevated track, while the term "subway" applies to the Broad Street Line which is almost entirely underground. Chicago's commuter rail system that serves the entire metropolitan area is called Metra (short for Metropolitan Rail), while its rapid transit system that serves the city is called the "L". Boston's subway system is known locally as "The T". In the San Francisco Bay Area, residents refer to Bay Area Rapid Transit by its acronym "BART".[22][23]

The New York City Subway is referred to simply as "the subway", despite 40% of the system running above ground. The term "L" or "El" is not used for elevated lines in general as the lines in the system are already designated with letters and numbers. The "L" train or L (New York City Subway service) refers specifically to the 14th Street–Canarsie Local line, and not other elevated trains. Similarly, the Toronto Subway is referred to as "the subway", with some of its system also running above ground. These are the only two North American systems that are called "subways".

In most of Southeast Asia and in Taiwan, rapid transit systems are primarily known by the acronym MRT. The meaning varies from one country to another. In Indonesia, the acronym stands for Moda Raya Terpadu or Integrated Mass [Transit] Mode in English.[24] In the Philippines, it stands for Metro Rail Transit.[25] Two underground lines use the term subway. In Thailand, it stands for Metropolitan Rapid Transit, previously using the Mass Rapid Transit name.[26] Outside of Southeast Asia, Kaohsiung and Taoyuan, Taiwan have their own MRT systems which stands for Mass Rapid Transit, as with Singapore.[27][28][29]

History

Main article: History of rapid transit
Initial construction stages of London's Metropolitan Railway at King's Cross St Pancras in 1861

The opening of London's steam-hauled

pneumatic railways
failed in their extended adoption by cities.

In 1890, the

City & South London Railway was the first electric-traction rapid transit railway, which was also fully underground.[30] Prior to opening, the line was to be called the "City and South London Subway", thus introducing the term Subway into railway terminology.[31] Both railways, alongside others, were eventually merged into London Underground. The 1893 Liverpool Overhead Railway was designed to use electric traction from the outset.[32]

The technology quickly spread to other cities in Europe, the United States, Argentina, and Canada, with some railways being converted from steam and others being designed to be electric from the outset. Budapest, Chicago, Glasgow, Boston and New York City all converted or purpose-designed and built electric rail services.[33]

Advancements in technology have allowed new automated services. Hybrid solutions have also evolved, such as tram-train and premetro, which incorporate some of the features of rapid transit systems.[30] In response to cost, engineering considerations and topological challenges some cities have opted to construct tram systems, particularly those in Australia, where density in cities was low and suburbs tended to spread out.[34] Since the 1970s, the viability of underground train systems in Australian cities, particularly Sydney and Melbourne, has been reconsidered and proposed as a solution to over-capacity. Melbourne had tunnels and stations developed in the 1970s and opened in 1980. The first line of the Sydney Metro was opened in 2019.[35]

Since the 1960s, many new systems were introduced in Europe, Asia and Latin America.[19] In the 21st century, most new expansions and systems are located in Asia, with China becoming the world's leader in metro expansion, operating some of the largest and busiest systems while possessing almost 60 cities that are operating, constructing or planning a rapid transit system.[36][37]

Operation

A station of the Rome Metro in 2012.

Rapid transit is used for local transport in

agglomerations, and metropolitan areas to transport large numbers of people often short distances at high frequency.[6] The extent of the rapid transit system varies greatly between cities, with several transport strategies.[5]

Some systems may extend only to the limits of the inner city, or to its inner ring of suburbs with trains making frequent station stops. The outer suburbs may then be reached by a separate commuter rail network where more widely spaced stations allow higher speeds. In some cases the differences between urban rapid transit and suburban systems are not clear.[4]

Rapid transit systems may be supplemented by other systems such as trolleybuses, regular buses, trams, or commuter rail. This combination of transit modes serves to offset certain limitations of rapid transit such as limited stops and long walking distances between outside access points. Bus or tram feeder systems transport people to rapid transit stops.[38]

Lines

Ana Rosa station platform, line 2 in São Paulo Metro
The coaches of the Delhi Metro are color-coded to indicate different service lines.
Helsinki Metro is the northernmost metro system in the world.[39][40][41]

Each rapid transit system consists of one or more lines, or circuits. Each line is serviced by at least one specific route with trains stopping at all or some of the line's stations. Most systems operate several routes, and distinguish them by colors, names, numbering, or a combination thereof. Some lines may share track with each other for a portion of their route or operate solely on their own right-of-way. Often a line running through the city center forks into two or more branches in the suburbs, allowing a higher service frequency in the center. This arrangement is used by many systems, such as the Copenhagen Metro,[42] the Milan Metro, the Oslo Metro, the Istanbul Metro and the New York City Subway.[43]

Alternatively, there may be a single central terminal (often shared with the central railway station), or multiple interchange stations between lines in the city center, for instance in the

Line 10
.

The capacity of a line is obtained by multiplying the car capacity, the train length, and the

seated to standing ratio—more standing gives higher capacity. The minimum time interval between trains is shorter for rapid transit than for mainline railways owing to the use of communications-based train control: the minimum headway can reach 90 seconds, but many systems typically use 120 seconds to allow for recovery from delays. Typical capacity lines allow 1,200 people per train, giving 36,000 passengers per hour per direction. However, much higher capacities are attained in East Asia with ranges of 75,000 to 85,000 people per hour achieved by MTR Corporation's urban lines in Hong Kong.[47][48][49]

Network topologies

Main article: List of metro systems

Rapid transit topologies are determined by a large number of factors, including geographical barriers, existing or expected travel patterns, construction costs, politics, and historical constraints. A transit system is expected to serve an area of land with a set of lines, which consist of shapes summarized as "I", "L", "U", "S", and "O" shapes or loops. Geographical barriers may cause chokepoints where transit lines must converge (for example, to cross a body of water), which are potential congestion sites but also offer an opportunity for transfers between lines.[50]

Ring lines provide good coverage, connect between the radial lines and serve tangential trips that would otherwise need to cross the typically congested core of the network. A rough grid pattern can offer a wide variety of routes while still maintaining reasonable speed and frequency of service.[50] A study of the 15 world largest subway systems suggested a universal shape composed of a dense core with branches radiating from it.[51]

Passenger information

The Tokyo Metro uses large LCD information display to show the current location, upcoming stops, and advertisements in several languages (Japanese, English, Simplified Chinese, Korean).

Rapid transit operators have often built up strong

corporate image
for the entire transit authority, but the rapid transit uses its own logo that fits into the profile.

The Shenzhen Metro uses large LCD information displays to show the current location, upcoming stops and diagrams of the next station.

A transit map is a topological map or schematic diagram used to show the routes and stations in a public transport system. The main components are color-coded lines to indicate each line or service, with named icons to indicate stations. Maps may show only rapid transit or also include other modes of public transport.[53] Transit maps can be found in transit vehicles, on platforms, elsewhere in stations, and in printed timetables. Maps help users understand the interconnections between different parts of the system; for example, they show the interchange stations where passengers can transfer between lines. Unlike conventional maps, transit maps are usually not geographically accurate, but emphasize the topological connections among the different stations. The graphic presentation may use straight lines and fixed angles, and often a fixed minimum distance between stations, to simplify the display of the transit network. Often this has the effect of compressing the distance between stations in the outer area of the system, and expanding distances between those close to the center.[53]

Some systems assign unique

Singapore MRT, Changi Airport MRT station has the alphanumeric code CG2, indicating its position as the 2nd station on the Changi Airport branch of the East West Line. Interchange stations have at least two codes, for example, Raffles Place MRT station
has two codes, NS26 and EW14, the 26th station on the North South Line and the 14th station on the East West Line.

The Seoul Metro is another example that utilizes a code for its stations. Unlike that of Singapore's MRT, it is mostly numbers. Based on the line number, for example Sinyongsan station, is coded as station 429. Being on Line 4, the first number of the station code is 4. The last 2 numbers are the station number on that line. Interchange stations can have multiple codes. Like City Hall station in Seoul which is served by Line 1 and Line 2. It has a code of 132 and 201 respectively. The Line 2 is a circle line and the first stop is City Hall, therefore, City Hall has the station code of 201. For lines without a number like Bundang line it will have an alphanumeric code. Lines without a number that are operated by KORAIL will start with the letter 'K'.

With widespread use of the

GTFS
data format for transit information allows many third-party software developers to produce web and smartphone app programs which give passengers customized updates regarding specific transit lines and stations of interest.

Safety and security

See also: Classification of railway accidents
Seoul Fire Services personnel participating in a firefighting exercise on Seoul Subway Line 6 in March 2001.
the Red Line (Tamsui-Xinyi Line), Taipei Metro, Taiwan
.
Full-height enclosed platform screen doors installed in an underground station of the Chennai Metro

Compared to other modes of transport, rapid transit has a good safety record, with few accidents. Rail transport is subject to strict safety regulations, with requirements for procedure and maintenance to minimize risk. Head-on collisions are rare due to use of double track, and low operating speeds reduce the occurrence and severity of rear-end collisions and derailments. Fire is more of a danger underground, such as the King's Cross fire in London in November 1987, which killed 31 people. Systems are generally built to allow evacuation of trains at many places throughout the system.[55][56]

High platforms, usually over 1 meter / 3 feet, are a safety risk, as people falling onto the tracks have trouble climbing back. Platform screen doors are used on some systems to eliminate this danger.

Rapid transit facilities are public spaces and may suffer from

conductors. In some countries a specialized transit police may be established. These security measures are normally integrated with measures to protect revenue by checking that passengers are not travelling without paying.[59]

Some subway systems, such as the

7/7
" terrorist bombings on the London Underground.

Added features

DAS antennas, such as this one installed by Transit Wireless in a NYC Subway station, are commonly used to provide cellular reception in metro stations.

Some rapid transport trains have extra features such as wall sockets, cellular reception, typically using a leaky feeder in tunnels and DAS antennas in stations, as well as Wi-Fi connectivity. The first metro system in the world to enable full mobile phone reception in underground stations and tunnels was Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system, which launched its first underground mobile phone network using AMPS in 1989.[61] Many metro systems, such as the Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway (MTR) and the Berlin U-Bahn, provide mobile data connections in their tunnels for various network operators.

Infrastructure

Inside a tunnel on the Turin Metro, the interlocking tunnel lining segments placed by a tunnel boring machine can be clearly seen.
Landungsbrücken station in Hamburg is an example where the U-Bahn is on the surface while the S-Bahn station is on a lower level.

The technology used for public, mass rapid transit has undergone significant changes in the years since the Metropolitan Railway opened publicly in London in 1863.[3][4]

High capacity

Wenhu Line of the Taipei Metro
serves many relatively sparse neighbourhoods and feeds into and complements the high capacity metro lines.

Some systems have been built from scratch, others are reclaimed from former commuter rail or suburban tramway systems that have been upgraded, and often supplemented with an underground or elevated downtown section.

right-of-way are typically used only outside dense areas, since they create a physical barrier in the urban fabric that hinders the flow of people and vehicles across their path and have a larger physical footprint. This method of construction is the cheapest as long as land values are low. It is often used for new systems in areas that are planned to fill up with buildings after the line is built.[63]

Trains

See also: Loading gauge

Most rapid transit trains are

fourth rail and others use the linear motor for propulsion.[66]

Some urban rail lines are built to a

main-line railways; others are built to a smaller one and have tunnels that restrict the size and sometimes the shape of the train compartments. One example is most of the London Underground, which has acquired the informal term "tube train" due to the cylindrical shape of the trains used on the deep tube lines
.

Historically, rapid transit trains used ceiling fans and openable windows to provide fresh air and piston-effect wind cooling to riders. From the 1950s to the 1990s (and in most of Europe until the 2000s), many rapid transit trains from that era were also fitted with forced-air ventilation systems in carriage ceiling units for passenger comfort. Early rapid transit rolling stock fitted with air conditioning, such as the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad K-series cars[67] from 1958, the New York City Subway R38 and R42 cars from the late-1960s, and the Nagoya Municipal Subway 3000 series, Osaka Municipal Subway 10 series[68] and MTR M-Train EMUs from the 1970s, were generally only made possible largely due to the relatively generous loading gauges of these systems and also adequate open-air sections to dissipate hot air from these air conditioning units. Especially in some rapid transit systems such as the Montreal Metro[69] (opened 1966) and Sapporo Municipal Subway (opened 1971), their entirely enclosed nature due to their use of rubber-tyred technology to cope with heavy snowfall experienced by both cities in winter precludes any air-conditioning retrofits of rolling stock due to the risk of heating the tunnels to temperatures that would be too hot for passengers and for train operations.

In many cities, metro networks consist of lines operating different sizes and types of vehicles. Although these sub-networks may not often be connected by track, in cases when it is necessary, rolling stock with a smaller loading gauge from one sub network may be transported along other lines that use larger trains. On some networks such operations are part of normal services.

Tracks

See also:
Railway gauge

Most rapid transit systems use conventional

standard gauge railway track. Since tracks in subway tunnels are not exposed to rain, snow, or other forms of precipitation, they are often fixed directly to the floor rather than resting on ballast
, such as normal railway tracks.

An alternate technology, using

traction of the rubber tires. However, they have higher maintenance costs and are less energy efficient. They also lose traction when weather conditions are wet or icy, preventing above-ground use of the Montréal Metro and limiting it on the Sapporo Municipal Subway, but not rubber-tired systems in other cities.[70]

Some cities with steep hills incorporate mountain railway technologies in their metros. One of the lines of the Lyon Metro includes a section of rack (cog) railway, while the Carmelit, in Haifa, is an underground funicular.

For elevated lines, another alternative is the

suspended monorail. While monorails have never gained wide acceptance outside Japan, there are some such as Chongqing Rail Transit
's monorail lines which are widely used in a rapid transit setting.

Motive power

See also:
Railway electrification system

Although trains on very early rapid transit systems like the

overhead wires
.

The use of overhead wires allows higher power supply

Fukuoka, Hong Kong, Madrid, and Shijiazhuang. Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor. Some systems use a separate fourth rail for this purpose. There are transit lines that make use of both rail and overhead power, with vehicles able to switch between the two such as Blue Line in Boston
.

Tunnels

Left: East–West tunnel section – part of Green Line – of the Kolkata Metro underneath the Hooghly River, Right: Constructing a subway station Prosek in Prague

At subterranean levels,

tunnel-boring machines can be used to dig deep-bore tunnels that lie further down in bedrock.[30]

The construction of an underground metro is an expensive project and is often carried out over a number of years. There are several different methods of building underground lines.

In one common method, known as

explosions in Guadalajara was a mislocated water pipeline. The structures are typically made of concrete, perhaps with structural columns of steel. In the oldest systems, brick, and cast iron
were used. Cut-and-cover construction can take so long that it is often necessary to build a temporary roadbed while construction is going on underneath, in order to avoid closing main streets for long periods of time.

Another tunneling method is called

tunnel-boring machines
are now available to overcome this challenge.

A disadvantage with this, is that the cost of tunneling is much higher than building cut-and-cover systems, at-grade or elevated. Early tunneling machines could not make tunnels large enough for conventional railway equipment, necessitating special low, round trains, such as are still used by most of the London Underground. It cannot install air conditioning on most of its lines because the amount of empty space between the trains and tunnel walls is so small. Other lines were built with cut-and-cover and have since been equipped with air-conditioned trains.

The deepest metro system in the world was built in

marshland
, stable soil starts more than 50 metres (160 ft) deep. Above that level, the soil mostly consists of water-bearing finely dispersed sand. Because of this, only three stations out of nearly 60 are built near ground level and three more above the ground. Some stations and tunnels lie as deep as 100–120 metres (330–390 ft) below the surface. Usually, the vertical distance between the ground level and the rail is used to represent the depth. Among the possible candidates are:

The Sportivnaya station of the Saint Petersburg Metro has two levels.

An advantage of deep tunnels is that they can dip in a basin-like profile between stations, without incurring the significant extra costs associated with digging near ground level. This technique, also referred to as putting stations "on humps", allows gravity to assist the trains as they accelerate from one station and brake at the next. It was used as early as 1890 on parts of the City and South London Railway and has been used many times since, particularly in Montreal.

The

escalators
. These kinds of exits have existed in many London Underground stations and stations in former Soviet Union nations.

Elevated railways

Bangkok Skytrain,[72] and Skyline Honolulu.[73]

Stations

Main article: Metro station
The Getafe Central station on Line 12 of Madrid Metro has several levels.

Stations function as hubs to allow passengers to board and disembark from trains. They are also payment checkpoints and allow passengers to transfer between modes of transport, for instance to buses or other trains. Access is provided via either island- or side platforms.[74] Underground stations, especially deep-level ones, increase the overall transport time: long escalator rides to the platforms mean that the stations can become bottlenecks if not adequately built. Some underground and elevated stations are integrated into vast underground or skyway networks respectively, that connect to nearby commercial buildings.[75] In suburbs, there may be a "park and ride" connected to the station.[76]

To allow easy access to the trains, the platform height allows step-free access between platform and train. If the station complies with accessibility standards, it allows both disabled people and those with wheeled baggage easy access to the trains,[77] though if the track is curved there can be a gap between the train and platform. Some stations use platform screen doors to increase safety by preventing people falling onto the tracks, as well as reducing ventilation costs.

Particularly in the former Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries, but to an increasing extent elsewhere, the stations were built with splendid decorations such as marble walls, polished granite floors and mosaics—thus exposing the public to art in their everyday life, outside galleries and museums. The systems in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Tashkent and Kyiv are widely regarded as some of the most beautiful in the world.[78] Several other cities such as London,[79] Stockholm, Montreal, Lisbon, Naples and Los Angeles have also focused on art, which may range from decorative wall claddings, to large, flamboyant artistic schemes integrated with station architecture, to displays of ancient artifacts recovered during station construction.[80] It may be possible to profit by attracting more passengers by spending relatively small amounts on grand architecture, art, cleanliness, accessibility, lighting and a feeling of safety.[81]

Crew size and automation

Trains on the North East MRT line in Singapore are fully automated and are not operated by any driver.

In the early days of underground railways, at least two staff members were needed to operate each train: one or more attendants (also called "

a single person. Where the operator would not be able to see the whole side of the train to tell whether the doors can be safely closed, mirrors or closed-circuit TV
monitors are often provided for that purpose.

Prague Metro, M1 driver panel

A replacement system for human drivers became available in the 1960s, with the advancement of

cab signals. The first metro line to use this technology in its entirety was London's Victoria line
, opened in 1968.

In normal operation, a crew member sits in the driver's position at the front, but is only responsible for closing the doors at each station. By pressing two "start" buttons the train would then move automatically to the next station. This style of "semi-automatic train operation" (STO), known technically as "

Grade of Automation (GoA) 2", has become widespread, especially on newly built lines like the San Francisco Bay Area's BART
network.

A variant of ATO, "driverless train operation" (DTO) or technically "GoA 3", is seen on some systems, as in London's Docklands Light Railway, which opened in 1987. Here, a "passenger service agent" (formerly called "train captain") would ride with the passengers rather than sit at the front as a driver would, but would have the same responsibilities as a driver in a GoA 2 system. This technology could allow trains to operate completely automatically with no crew, just as most elevators do. When the initially increasing costs for automation began to decrease, this became a financially attractive option for the operators.

At the same time, countervailing arguments stated that in an

Scarborough RT
line in Toronto.

Completely unstaffed trains, or "unattended train operation" (UTO) or technically "GoA 4", are more accepted on newer systems where there are no existing crews to be displaced, and especially on

Kelana Jaya Line
in Kuala Lumpur, both which carries no crew members.

Platform screen doors at Castle Hill Station on the Sydney Metro

Systems that use automatic trains also commonly employ full-height

infrared sensors instead to detect obstacles on the track. Conversely, some lines which retain drivers or manual train operation nevertheless use PSDs, notably London's Jubilee Line Extension. The first network to install PSDs on an already operational system was Hong Kong's MTR
, followed by the Singapore MRT.

As for larger trains, the Paris Métro has human drivers on most lines but runs automated trains on its newest line, Line 14, which opened in 1998. The older Line 1 was subsequently converted to unattended operation by 2012, and it is expected that Line 4 will follow by 2023.[82] The North East MRT line in Singapore, which opened in 2003, is the world's first fully automated underground urban heavy-rail line. The MTR Disneyland Resort line is also automated, along with trains on the South Island line.

Modal tradeoffs and interconnections

Main article: Urban rail transit
Stratford Station in London is shared by London Underground trains (left) and main line rail services (right), as well as the Docklands Light Railway (not shown).

Since the 1980s,

rights-of-way, thus avoiding congestion; they remain on the same level as buses and cars. Some light rail systems have elevated or underground sections. Both new and upgraded tram systems allow faster speed and higher capacity, and are a cheap alternative to construction of rapid transit, especially in smaller cities.[34]

A

street-running suburban trams, without the grade-separation of rapid transit. Premetros also allow a gradual upgrade of existing tramways to rapid transit, thus spreading the investment costs over time. They are most common in Germany with the name Stadtbahn.[64]

Suburban

agglomerations
.

Some cities have opted for two tiers of urban railways: an urban rapid transit system (such as the

S-trains, suburban service, or (sometimes) regional rail. The suburban systems may have their own purpose built trackage, run at similar "rapid transit-like" frequencies, and (in many countries) are operated by the national railway company. In some cities these suburban services run through tunnels in the city center and have direct transfers to the rapid transit system, on the same or adjoining platforms.[83][84]

In some cases, such as the

interline
with intervals dropping to typical rapid transit headways.

Costs, benefits, and impacts

Main article:
Transport planning
The Docklands Light Railway in London allows for dense land use, while retaining a high capacity.

As of March 2018, 212 cities have built rapid transit systems.

motorways;[86] the rapid transit system allows higher capacity with less land use, less environmental impact, and a lower cost.[87][5] A 2023 study found that rapid transit systems lead to a massive reduction in CO2 emissions.[88]

Elevated or underground systems in city centers allow the transport of people without occupying expensive land, and permit the city to develop compactly without physical barriers.

transit oriented development office and housing blocks being constructed.[86][89] Also, an efficient transit system can decrease the economic welfare loss caused by the increase of population density in a metropolis.[90]

Rapid transit systems have high

fare revenue, advertising and government funding
to cover costs.

The

Taipei[92] achieving recovery ratios of well over 100%. This ignores both heavy capital costs incurred in building the system, which are often funded with soft loans[93] and whose servicing is excluded from calculations of profitability, as well as ancillary revenue such as income from real estate portfolios.[91] Some systems, particularly Hong Kong's, extensions are partly financed by the sale of land whose value has appreciated by the new access the extension has brought to the area,[63] a process known as value capture
.

Urban land-use planning policies are essential for the success of rapid transit systems, particularly as mass transit is not feasible in low-density communities. Transportation planners estimate that to support rapid rail services, there must be a residential housing density of twelve dwelling units per acre.[94]

See also

References

Citations

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