Rapier (missile)

Rapier
flight control surface
Launch platform	vehicle or trailer

Rapier is a

. The system is unusual as it uses a manual optical guidance system, sending guidance commands to the missile in flight over a radio link. This results in a high level of accuracy, therefore a large warhead is not required.

Entering service in 1971, it eventually replaced all other anti-aircraft weapons in British Army service; both the Bofors guns used against low-altitude targets and the Thunderbird missile^[4] used against longer-range and higher-altitude targets. As the expected air threat moved from medium-altitude strategic missions to low-altitude strikes, the fast reaction time and high manoeuvrability of the Rapier made it more effective than either of these weapons, replacing most of them by 1977.

Rapier was later selected by the

History

Earlier systems

The introduction of medium-range surface-to-air missiles, or surface-to-air guided weapons (SAGW) as they are known in the UK, had made flying at medium or high altitudes anywhere near the front line near suicidal. In response, air forces began introducing aircraft and weapons meant to be used at low altitudes, in nap-of-the-earth flying that used landforms to block the view of the aircraft from the radar systems on the missiles.^[8]

By the late 1950s, the

To improve this, the Army began the development of a massively improved weapon known as "Red Queen".^[9] This used a large 42 mm (1.7 in) round in a rotary cannon arrangement for high rates of fire.^[8] In spite of some progress, in 1959, the General Staff concluded that guns were no longer useful against modern aircraft. For their immediate needs they purchased the new Bofors 40/L70, and for the longer term began a new missile development for a short-range, rapid-reaction weapon, known as the Light Anti-Aircraft (LAA) system.^[8]

PT.428

The initial design contest for the LAA was won by

As budget pressures escalated in the early 1960s, the Army was given the choice of picking either PT.428 or their

Sightline

During the development of PT.428, BAC had also considered a lightweight version of the system which mounted six of the PT.428 missiles on a trailer that could be towed by a pickup version of the

When PT.428 ended in 1961, BAC began considering less-expensive options based on the same general concept.[11] During this time, Colin Baron and John Twinn at the Royal Aircraft Establishment were developing an optical semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS) system. Using this with the PT.428 missile produced the Sightline concept, which would be much less expensive than the original radar-guided version.^[12]

The next year, Mauler was downgraded on its way to being cancelled, leaving both the US and British Army with no modern short-range anti-aircraft systems. The General Staff and Air Staff responded by issuing the combined GASR.3132 requirement for a clear-weather daytime SAM for both the Army and the RAF Regiment.^[12] Whether GASR.3132 was designed for Sightline, or Sightline for GASR.3132, is not clear in existing references. The new concept was given the name "Defoe". An even smaller and cheaper system lacking an early warning radar was also considered under GASR.3134.^[12]

Rapier

In 1963, Defoe was made official, given the development target ET.316. BAC management initially gave it the name "Mongoose", but during a board meeting the issue arose that no one knew what more than one mongoose was called; mongooses? mongeese? The name "Rapier" was suggested and made official.^[12]

As development continued, it became increasingly clear that the Rapier was a much more formidable weapon than initially expected. The optical tracking system was so accurate that the missile almost always hit the aircraft, so even with its small warhead and lack of a proximity fuze it almost certainly guaranteed a kill. BAC joked that the system was a "hit-ile", as opposed to a "miss-ile". It also became clear that the warning radar system would be invaluable in the field, and GASR.3134 was dropped.^[12]

The first test firings of the missile took place in 1966.

, who were early users of the Rapier system.

Some of the Australian staff at Woomera began development of a simulator system in 1965 in order to understand and tune the manual guidance system. This consisted of a joystick from the Rapier optical tracker which caused the projected image of the missile to move about. Models of the missile and various target aircraft were constructed and shot using stop motion filming techniques to make a selection of films of various target attack sequences across the Woomera sky. The system was completed in 1968 and in initial testing, it seemed tracking was a serious problem, and it appeared the British Army was concerned that the system would simply be beyond the capabilities of the average gunner. However, some of the problems were ultimately solved by adjusting the mechanical feedback in the joystick so it more closely matched the difficulty the missile would have responding to various inputs, and with that solved, many of the remaining issues were worked out through a massive simulation run and data processing on an IBM 7090.^[13] Complete systems were tested in 1968, which led to a production contract being issued in 1969.

On a parallel track, the RAF Regiment had been looking for a short-range weapon for airfield defense. Eventually, this led to the development of the

naval surface-to-air missile system. Tigercat was similar to Rapier in basic concept, but based on older technologies and thus somewhat larger and heavier while offering lower performance. Tigercat was introduced into service with No 48 Squadron RAF Regiment in 1968, giving the RAF Regiment the UK's first effective fully air portable low-level SAM system and valuable experience in operating systems of this type. In 1972 a trials unit known as the Rapier Pilot Battery was formed jointly by No 63 Squadron RAF Regiment and 9 (Plassey) Light Air Defence Battery Royal Artillery. Comprehensive trials ended in 1973 and the first Rapier unit in British service, No. 63 Squadron, deployed to its operational station in Germany in mid-1974.

In the 1980s, a new training simulator system was constructed in

Operation

The original Rapier took the form of a two-wheeled launcher carrying four missiles, an optical tracker unit, a generator, and a trailer of reserve missiles. The launcher consists of a vertical cylindrical unit carrying two missiles on each side, the surveillance radar dish and "

The search radar was of the pulsed Doppler type with a range of about 15 kilometres (9 mi). The aerial, located at the top of the launcher, rotated about once a second, looking for moving targets through their

doppler shift

. When one was located, a lamp would light up on the Selector Engagement Zone (SEZ), a box containing 32 orange lamps arranged in a circle about the size of an automobile steering wheel. The radar operator could also use switches to blank out returns from other directions, providing jamming resistance.

The optical tracker unit was made up of a stationary lower section and a rotating upper section. The lower section housed the operator controls, while the upper section housed the tracking optics. The operator's optical system is a modified telescope containing a Dove prism to prevent the image 'toppling' as the optics rotate in azimuth. Using this system means that, unlike a periscope, the operator does not have to move in order to track the target. The upper section also contains a separate missile tracking system that follows the operator's optics, based on a television camera optimized for the IR band.

Upon detection of a target, the optical tracking system is slewed to target azimuth fed to it from the SEZ and the operator then searches for the target in elevation. The operator's field of view is selected based on the target's range: "wide" at about 20 degrees or "track" at about 4.8 degrees. When the target is found, the operator switches to "track" and uses a joystick to keep the target centred in the telescope. Once a steady track is established the missile is fired. The TV camera on the tracker is tuned to track four flares on the missile's tail. Like the operator's telescope, the TV system has two views, one about 11 degrees wide for the initial "capture", and another at 0.55 degrees for midcourse tracking.

The location of the missile relative to the line-of-sight is measured using a system identical to the "chopper" system used in early

, with the exception that those systems normally use small wires to send guidance information to the missile, rather than a radio link.

The missile contains a 1.4-kilogram (3.1 lb) warhead with a contact fuze and a single-stage solid-rocket motor that accelerates the missile to about 650 metres per second (2,100 ft/s), about Mach 2. Engagement time to the maximum effective range is about 13 seconds. Response time from the start of the target detection to missile launch is about six seconds, which has been repeatedly confirmed in live firing.

The whole system and its crew are delivered by two Land Rovers designated the Fire Unit Truck (FUT) and the Detachment Support Vehicle (DSV). Royal Artillery batteries comprised three troops each of four fire units, while RAF Regiment squadrons had eight fire units. By 1980, each Royal Artillery fire unit consisted of a 24-volt, 101 FC 1 tonne Land Rover towing the Rapier Launcher and carrying four missiles on board, a 2.8 m (109 in), 3/4 ton, 24 V FFR (Fitted For Radio) Land Rover towing a 1-ton Missile Supply Trailer (MST), containing up to 10 further missiles. Blindfire radar (see below) was only provided for a third of fire units in British Army service, but for all fire units in the RAF Regiment.

Blindfire radar, FSA

Although accurate and simple to use, the original Rapier system clearly suffered from a lack of all-weather capability. To address this need, BAC started work on a separate radar guidance unit, primarily to improve foreign sales. This led to the introduction of the Marconi DN 181 "Blindfire" radar in 1970,^[17] the first examples being sold to the Iranian Army in 1973.

The British Army did not purchase the Blindfire system until 1979, entering service with Rapier "Field Standard A" (FSA). The RAF Regiment had 27 Squadron operational with Blindfire at RAF Leuchars by 1979, and was in the process of bringing all the RAF Regiment GBAD (Ground Based Air Defence) Squadrons into line. By 1997 more than 350 Blindfire radars had been produced.

To ensure accuracy, Blindfire used a very narrow "pencil" beam and tracks both the target and missile. To allow the operator to monitor the Blindfire system when it was tracking the target, the existing optical tracker follows the Blindfire radar, although it is possible for the optical tracker to be manually "laid on" a second target whilst the Blindfire engages the first. The Blindfire trailer carries its own generator unit, and is towed by a third Land Rover (a 12 V winch-equipped 101 FC) with the designation Tracking Radar Tractor (TRT).

Tracked Rapier

RAF Museum Cosford

With sales to Iran came the additional requirement for a fully-mobile version of Rapier to protect the Chieftain tanks being supplied on a UK MOD contract. BAC responded by adapting the Rapier system to fit on the M548, a cargo-carrier version of the ubiquitous M113. Development started in 1974 as "Tracked Rapier", with the first public showing at the 1977 Paris Air Show as a static display unit.

The initial proposal for the system was to simply mount the towed launcher, less its running gear, and its petrol generator set on the flatbed of the M548 carrier. When this was shown to Mr. G.R. Jefferson, the GW Managing Director, he was not very impressed. Aware of the amount of money available, he required a much more extensive change. Greville Beale and Adrian Pollicutt led the development of a significantly different arrangement which was produced in a short period.

This included significant changes to the M548 vehicle to armour the vehicle, now designated RCM 748, and to incorporate a new diesel-powered generator set using the Coventry Climax H 30 engine, also used as the auxiliary power unit in the Chieftain tank. The majority of the electronic equipment in the launcher was not changed significantly from that used in the towed version. However, a completely redesigned armoured launcher with the capability of loading eight missiles was produced which was mounted via anti-vibration mounts to the flatbed of the vehicle. The armoured cab was provided with pan-climatic heating/cooling and NBC protection.

The optical tracker was placed inside the armoured cab of the vehicle, elevating through the roof for operation. The tracker was operated from the right side of the crew cabin, while on the left were the driver and tactical controller who was also provided with a helmet-mounted sight, allowing him to lay on the tracker to a visual target.

From moving to firing took only 30 seconds, a tremendous improvement over Towed Rapier, which required at least 15 minutes to unlimber, cable-up and align. A further difference between Towed and Tracked Rapier was that the Tracked Rapier launcher had eight (protected) missile rails compared with the four of the towed system, enhancing firepower and reducing re-supply requirements. It was also air-portable, ready to deploy on landing, in

aircraft.

There was no room for Blindfire on a single RCM748 vehicle, so this was instead towed or was to be carried on a separate modified M548/RCM748. Feeding data to the control system in the firing unit again required setup time to connect the two pieces of equipment.

The system had not yet been fully developed when the Shah fell from power in 1978. The vehicles were later purchased by the British Army as part of a Fixed-price Develop and Supply contract. The first production Tracked Rapier was accepted on time and to cost at Wellington Barracks in early 1981, and entered service with 11 (Sphinx) Air Defence Battery, of 22 Air Defence Regiment,

.

After initially entering service at Towed FSB1 standard, with planar array radar and the 'Pointing Stick', the Tracked Rapiers were upgraded, with the latest version included a Thermal-imaging enhanced tracker which enabled single vehicle 24 hour operation without the need for the Blindfire unit.

A modified M548 Missile Resupply Vehicle carried replacement missiles, a relief crew, and additional field kits, rations and water. A further M548 was configured as a REME Forward Area Support team with test facilities and spares.

During the Gulf War, 12 and 16 Regiment Royal Artillery tracked batteries, quickly fitted with sat-nav for desert use, combined to provide Tracked Rapier support to deployed armoured regiments.

Tracked Rapier was retired in the early 1990s, due to manning limitations when the Towed FSC version entered service. It has since been replaced by

.

FSB

Shortly after introducing FSA, "Field Standard B" (FSB) added a number of basic upgrades. Additionally, the search radar was upgraded to be easily shut down in case of an anti-radiation missile attack. FSB included lessons from the Falklands campaign, notable the 'pointing stick' that enabled the detachment commander of a fire unit to point the aiming unit at a target.

Laserfire

With the range of upgrades and new components, the original low-cost Rapier system was gone. In order to address international market requirements for a lower-cost system, BAC started development of the "Rapier Laserfire" in 1982. Laserfire replaced the original optical tracker unit with a new lidar (laser radar) illuminating system that is considerably smaller, allowing the entire system to be mounted on a single pallet that could itself be mounted on a truck or other flatbed vehicle.

Laserfire used a millimetric Doppler radar. Due to its very high frequency of operation and ability to transform its beamshape from narrow azimuth and high elevation to wide azimuth and narrow elevation, Laserfire was able to detect helicopters hovering or travelling at low altitude and in areas of high clutter by detecting the movement of the helicopter's rotor blades.

Initial engagement is similar to the original Rapier, but the target was illuminated and automatically tracked by a high power YAG:Nd laser. After the missile was launched the laser alternately illuminated the target and missile to determine their locations, and guidance was sent to the missile as normal (see laser guidance). Laserfire thus represented a fairly major upgrade to the original optical system, allowing semi-automatic engagements, and greatly reducing operator skill and training requirements.

On the downside, Laserfire no longer has the optical system of the original, which served an important second duty by allowing the aircraft to be visually identified at long range. Additionally, while the Laserfire tracking system was capable of being operated at night, target acquisition was optical, like the original Rapier.

Darkfire

In 1985 development started on a new tracker that replaced the original optical system with a new IR thermal imager system to improve its abilities, especially at night. This version was known as "Rapier Darkfire" for this reason. Trials of the new system started in 1987, and were deployed operationally in 1990 as "Field Standard B2" (FSB2), the earlier upgrades retroactively becoming FSB1. This system was also known as "Rapier 90". Cooling for the imager was provided by bottles of compressed gas.

FSB2 also introduced a number of improvements that greatly improved Rapier capabilities. First and foremost was the Tactical Control Console that allowed four Rapier launchers to be controlled from a central location. The launchers themselves were upgraded to carry six missiles instead of four, improving battery capacity. Finally, the search radar was updated to use a new

, although its capabilities remained generally the same as the earlier model.

Missile upgrades

In 1988 tests started on an improved warhead using a proximity fuze, in order to give Rapier capability against smaller targets that would be difficult to hit directly, notably high-speed

. Serial production of Mk. 1E began in 1989.

In 1992 the Army signed a contract to upgrade all Rapier systems to an enhanced version. A Mark 2 missile variant commenced development in 1986 culminating in a complete re-design which entered service in the mid-1990s. Along with a further upgrade of the proximity fuze, the new missile incorporated (then) state-of-art technologies including:

Von Karman supersonic aerodynamic profile; composite propellant, with a two-stage shaped burn and laminated body solid rocket motor; ceramic substrate surface mount PCBs; completely new electronic systems and software; both analogue and digital proprietary ASICs; highly ECM resistant front end and command link with redundant encoding; fully Digital Autopilot incorporating Kalman state filtering; inertial navigation comprising ring-laser roll and rate gyroscope; Kapton ribbon cabling.

The missile warhead is available in two versions, the Mk. 2A for the normal anti-aircraft role, and the Mk. 2B, which includes a shaped charge warhead and dual fuzes, and which is useful against light armour as well.

Rapier 2000

In 1992, shortly after the introduction of Rapier 90, another major upgrade series started at MBDA (previously Matra BAe Dynamics). Emerging as "Rapier 2000", or "Field Standard C" (FSC) in British service, the system reached its ultimate form. Development of the FSC system began in 1983^[18] and the systems first entered service in 1996. By this time the Cold War was over and British air defence capabilities were significantly reduced, with fewer and smaller batteries, albeit every fire unit with Blindfire. There is also an export version of this version, known as Jernas. Malaysia is the first export customer for Jernas.

FSC was effectively a new system, although Blindfire was little changed and it could fire both Mk 1 and Mk 2 missiles. The Surveillance radar was removed from the launcher and became a separate element and each launcher now carried eight missiles.

With the missiles increasingly relying on radar guidance since the introduction of Blindfire, it made sense to upgrade the original search radar to something much more modern. This was supplied by the Alenia Marconi "Dagger",

cooler instead of compressed gas bottles. The use of much smaller electronics greatly reduced stack height of the whole launcher, allowing an additional two missiles to be added, for a total of eight.

In operation, the Rapier 2000 is similar to earlier Blindfire-equipped systems. Targets are acquired visually or through the Dagger radar, and then the Blindfire and optical tracker are slewed onto the target. The optical system can be used solely to track the missile, or it can be used for all guidance, like the original Rapier. In either case the engagement is entirely automatic, with no operator guidance needed. The optical system can also be used as a search system, seeking out IR sources, allowing radar-quiet operation.

In 2006 a Ministry of Defence study in Ground Based Air Defence recommended further reductions, based on a reduced air threat and the improved air defence capabilities afforded by the Typhoon fighter. These included removing the role from the RAF Regiment as a measure to preserve Royal Artillery units in the face of significant cuts to the Army. Nevertheless, the Royal Artillery units were placed under command of the

was formed.

Combat history

The first known use of a Rapier in combat was in December 1974 during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War when it shot down an Ilyushin Il-76MD belonging to the Iraqi Air Force.^{[citation needed]} The missile belonged to the Iranian army, but it was stationed inside Iraq to protect the Kurdish military headquarters. It was fired by a British crew, which seems to have been under contract to either the Iranian government or possibly the missile's manufacturer, BAC.^{[citation needed]} A number of years after the Shah was deposed in 1978, during informal contact with senior members of the Iranian army they indicated to a UK support organisation that they had continued to operate the initial batch of 30 launchers that had been delivered prior to the Shah's removal and that they had intercepted and destroyed a number of invading aircraft, significantly more than were engaged in the Falkland activities.

In April 1982, the original Rapier was deployed during the Falklands War when T Battery of the 12th Regiment Royal Artillery joined 3 Commando Brigade as part of the Falklands Task Force, landing at San Carlos on 21 May. Their task was to provide air defence cover for a Harrier landing and re-fuelling pad built on the outskirts of Port San Carlos. (T Battery's sister battery, 9 (Plassey) Battery, was not deployed on the islands until after the conflict had ended.^[20]) 63 Squadron RAF Regiment, coincidentally the first unit to have been equipped with Rapier, was deployed at San Carlos bay on 1 June, later deploying around Stanley.

There were many sighting problems which prevented Rapier from operating efficiently, which led to it not being particularly effective in terms of number of 'kills'; but its presence acted as a deterrent, especially after the deployment of Blindfire systems around Port San Carlos.

From an engineering perspective, the fragile nature of the launchers was well known before the conflict, exacerbated by the sinking of the MV Atlantic Conveyor with almost all of the missiles spares. The intermittent unserviceability of fire unit 32 alpha at Fitzroy was one of many factors that contributed to the success of the bombing of the RFA Sir Galahad.^[20]

Early post-war reports were favourable, indicating 14 kills and 6 probables.

, as well as T Battery.

The official history of the war states "Within the total, only five Argentine aircraft might have been shot down by Rapier, and, as originally noted by Ethell and Price, only one of these was certain, with two probables and two possibles. Similar discrepancies arose over other weapons systems, notably

The main problems were a lack of range, and the decision to omit a proximity fuze, an attribute which required the operator to strike the target aircraft directly with the missile. Rapier also suffered from problems with the IFF system^[24] and suffered from interference with Royal Navy radar.

Rapiers were used during the

Operators

Current operators

 Iran

Islamic Republic of Iran Army

 Kenya

Kenyan Air Force

 Malaysia

Malaysian Army – ordered 3 batteries in April 2002 ^[26][27]

• 3 radars
• 3 dagger
• 15 launchers
• 150 Rapier-2 missiles

 Oman

Royal Air Force of Oman – Rapier systems entered service in 1976

• 28 launchers ordered in 1974
• 600 Rapier-1 missiles ordered in 1974
• 12 Blindfire radars ordered in 1980
• 800 Rapier-2 missiles

 Switzerland

Swiss Air Force – ordered in 1980 ^[28]

• 60 Blindfire radars
• 60 launchers
• 1,200 Rapier-1 missiles
• 2,000 Rapier-2 missiles

 Turkey

HISAR-A

in 2021.

• 12 Blindfire radars ordered in 1983
• 36 launchers ordered in 1983
• 750 Rapier-1 missiles ordered in 1983
• 12 Blindfire radars ordered in 1985
• 36 launchers ordered in 1985
• 750 Rapier-1 missiles ordered in 1985
• 72 rebuilt to standard Rapier-2000 in 1997-2002
• 840 Rapier-2 missiles ordered in 1999

 United Arab Emirates

United Arab Emirates Army – Rapier systems ordered in 1974

• 12 launchers
• 250 Rapier-1 missiles

 Zambia

Zambian Air Force – Rapier systems ordered in 1971^[29]

• 12 launchers
• 250 Rapier-1 missiles

Former operators

 Australia

Australian Army

• 20 SAM systems ordered in 1975
• 570 Rapier-1 missiles ordered in 1975
• (20 purchased second hand from the UK, 'Project Land-140')

 Brunei

Royal Brunei Air Force – Rapier systems FSB1 ordered in 1979, latterly operated by No. 233 Squadron (formerly 33 Squadron) at Penanjong Garrison

• 4 radars Blindfire
• 12 launchers
• 250 Rapier-1 missiles

 Indonesia

Indonesian Army – Rapier systems ordered in 1984-1986^[30]

• 21 launchers ordered in 1984
• 9 launchers ordered in 1986
• 820 Rapiers-1 missiles (300 in 1984, 400 in 1985, 120 in 1986)

 Iran

Imperial Iranian Army

– Rapier systems entered service in 1972

• 45 launchers ordered in 1970
• 36 launchers ordered in 1974
• 1250 Rapiers-1 missiles ordered in 1970
• 950 Rapiers-1 missiles ordered in 1973

 Iraq

Iraqi Armed Forces – captured from Iran during the Iran–Iraq War, phased out after 2003^[31]

 Libya

Libyan Air Force

 Qatar

Qatar Armed Forces – Rapier systems entered service in 1983

• 6 Blindfire radars ordered in 1981
• 12 launchers ordered in 1981
• 250 Rapiers-1 missiles ordered in 1981

 Singapore

Republic of Singapore Air Force – Rapier systems entered service in 1981,^[32] replaced by SPYDER missile system from 2011.^[33]

• 6 Blindfire radars ordered in 1981
• 12 launchers ordered in 1981, systems modernised from 1998 to 1999 to the standard Rapier-2000
• 250 Rapiers-1 missiles ordered in 1981, modernised to standard Rapier-2 in 1998-99

 United Kingdom

British Army – 124 launchers, operated by the Royal Artillery

 United States

US Army

– Rapier systems entered service in 1983

• 32 Blindfire radars ordered in 1981
• 32 launchers ordered in 1981
• 650 Rapiers-1 missiles ordered in 1981
• 11 Blindfire radars ordered in 1985
• 14 launchers ordered in 1985
• 600 Rapiers-1 missiles ordered in 1985

Replacement

At the

Museums

IWM Duxford

An example is on display under cover in a hangar in

IWM Duxford

.

Another example is on display at the City of Norwich Aviation Museum.

An FSB standard Launcher, Tracker and S.E.Z. is on display in the Aerospace Bristol museum at Filton Bristol.

A Rapier 2000 is on display at the National Army Museum London

An example of a Rapier system at the Heugh Battery^[35]

References

Citations

Bibliography

• Cullen, Tony; Foss, Christopher F., eds. (1992). Jane's Land-Based Air Defence 1992–93 (5th ed.). Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Data Division.
  ISBN 0-7106-0979-5
  .
• Gibson, Chris; Buttler, Tony (2007). British Secret Projects: Hypersonics, Ramjets and Missiles. Midland.
  ISBN 9781857802580
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rapier missiles.

• Rapier/Jernas missile information on BAe website
• archived version of BAe website on Rapier/Jernas
• Rapier/Jernas missile information on MBDA company website
• MBDA promotional video of Rapier/Jernas missile on
  YouTube
• YouTube