Rashtrakuta Empire

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Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta
753 CE–982 CE
Kannada
Sanskrit
Religion
Hinduism
Jainism
Buddhism[2]
GovernmentMonarchy
Maharaja 
• 735–756
Dantidurga
• 973–982
Indra IV
History 
• Earliest Rashtrakuta records
753 CE
• Established
753 CE
• Disestablished
982 CE
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Chalukya dynasty
Western Chalukya Empire
Today part ofIndia

Rashtrakuta (

copper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapur, a city in Central or West India. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur and the rulers of Kannauj
. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native homeland and their language.

The Elichpur clan was a

Prathihara dynasty of Malwa were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively. An Arabic text, Silsilat al-Tawarikh (851), called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world.[3]

This period, between the 8th and the 10th centuries, saw a

Yamuna River doab in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by Hinduism and the later kings by Jainism
.

During their rule,

UNESCO World Heritage Sites
.

History

The origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. These issues pertain to the origin of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of Emperor

Manyakheta (present-day Malkhed in the Kalaburagi district, Karnataka state), who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been debated.[5][6][7]

The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval

Punjab region,[19] or other north western ethnic groups of India.[20]

Scholars however concur that the rulers of the imperial dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the

Kannadigas,[15][7][30][31][32][33][11] they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well.[34]

The heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of

Kanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras of Malwa, and the rulers of Kalinga, Kosala and Srisailam.[38][39]

Dantidurga's successor

Talakad under his control.[40][45] According to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule.[44][46]

Expansion

The Rashtrakutas and neighbouring polities in South Asia circa 800 CE.[47]

The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha's third son,

The successor of Govinda III,

Amoghavarsha I was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit.[66][67] His Kavirajamarga is considered an important landmark in Kannada poetics and Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit is a writing of high merit and was later translated into the Tibetan language.[68] Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature, he has been compared to the emperor Ashoka and called "Ashoka of the South".[69]

During the rule of

Kaveri River and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.[75][76][77][78][79]

Decline

In 972 A.D.,

Western Chalukyas annexed Manyakheta and made it their capital until 1015 and built an impressive empire in the Rashtrakuta heartland during the 11th century. The focus of dominance shifted to the Krishna River – Godavari River doab called Vengi. The former feudatories of the Rashtrakutas in western Deccan were brought under control of the Chalukyas, and the hitherto-suppressed Cholas of Tanjore became their arch enemies in the south.[84]

In conclusion, the rise of Rashtrakutas of

Rajadhiraja Chola's conquest of the island of Ceylon in the early 11th century CE led to the fall of four kings there. According to historian K. Pillay, one of them, King Madavarajah of the Jaffna kingdom, was an usurper from the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.[97]

Administration

Inscriptions and other literary records indicate the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were considered more important than age and chronology of birth, as exemplified by the crowning of Govinda III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha. The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister (Mahasandhivigrahi) whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical instruments called Panchamahashabdas. Under him was the commander (Dandanayaka), the foreign minister (Mahakshapataladhikrita) and a prime minister (Mahamatya or Purnamathya), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier.

Amoghavarsha I
, administered Edathore Vishaya.

The kingdom was divided into Mandala or Rashtras (provinces). A Rashtra was ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha I's empire had sixteen Rashtras. Under a Rashtra was a

Amoghavarsha I headed several Rashtras, besides ruling Banavasi which included 12,000 villages in that territory, lesser Rashtras included: Kunduru (500), Belvola (300), Puligere (300) and Kundarge (70). Below the Vishaya was the Nadu looked after by the Nadugowda (or Nadugavunda); sometimes there were two such officials, one assuming the position through heredity and another appointed centrally. The lowest division was a Grama or village administered by a Gramapathi or Prabhu Gavunda.[99]

The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large contingents of infantry, horsemen, and elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment (Sthirabhuta Kataka) in the regal capital of Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the defense of the empire in case of war. Chieftains and all the officials also served as commanders whose postings were transferable if the need arose.[100]

The Rashtrakutas issued coins (minted in an Akkashale) such as Suvarna, Drammas in silver and gold weighing 65 

grains, Kalanju weighing 48 grains, Gadyanaka weighing 96 grains, Kasu weighing 15 grains, Manjati with 2.5 grains and Akkam of 1.25 grain.[101]

Economy

Kashivishvanatha temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka

The Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat,

Gangas, produced such woods as sandal, timber, teak and ebony. Incense and perfumes were exported from the ports of Thana and Saimur.[103]

The Deccan was rich in minerals, though its soil was not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains. The copper mines of

Dharwar were an important source of income and played an important role in the economy.[104] Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary, Kurnool and Golconda; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and jewellery trading centres. The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some regions of northern Maharashtra. Mysore with its vast elephant herds was important for the ivory industry.[105]

The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of the subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade.

storax, sweet clover, flint glass, antimony, gold and silver coins, singing boys and girls (for the entertainment of the royalty) from other lands. Trading in horses was an important and profitable business, monopolised by the Arabs and some local merchants.[107] The Rashtrakuta government levied a shipping tax of one golden Gadyanaka on all foreign vessels embarking to any other ports and a fee of one silver Ctharna ( a coin) on vessels travelling locally.[108]

Artists and craftsman operated as corporations (guilds) rather than as individual business. Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers, oilmen, artisans, basket and mat makers and fruit sellers. A Saundatti inscription refers to an assemblage of all the people of a district headed by the guilds of the region.[109] Some guilds were considered superior to others, just as some corporations were, and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges. Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and, like village assemblies, they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses.[110]

The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories.[111] An emergency tax was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming war's ravages. Income tax included taxes on crown land, wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to the economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors.[112] Additionally, customary presents were given to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions as marriage or the birth of a son.[113]

The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants.[114] The land owner or tenant paid a variety of taxes, including land taxes, produce taxes and payment of the overhead for maintenance of the Gavunda (village head). Land taxes were varied, based on type of land, its produce and situation and ranged from 8% to 16%. A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to the drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region.[115] The land tax may have been as high as 20% to pay for expenses of a military frequently at war.[116] In most of the kingdom, land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted.[117] A portion of all taxes earned by the government (usually 15%) was returned to the villages for maintenance.[115]

Taxes were levied on artisans such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall owners, brewers and gardeners. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, meat, honey, medicine, fruits and essentials like fuel was as high as 16%.[108] Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active.[118] The state claimed all such properties whose deceased legal owner had no immediate family to make an inheritance claim.[119] Other miscellaneous taxes included ferry and house taxes. Only Brahmins and their temple institutions were taxed at a lower rate.[120]

Culture

Religion

The Rashtrakuta kings supported the popular religions of the day in the traditional spirit of religious tolerance.

Mahaviracharya wrote in his Ganita Sarasangraha, "The subjects under Amoghavarsha are happy and the land yields plenty of grain. May the kingdom of King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha, follower of Jainism ever increase far and wide." Amoghavarsha may have taken up Jainism in his old age.[124][125]

However, the Rashtrakuta kings also patronized

copper plate grant of King Dantidurga (753) shows an image of god Shiva and the coins of his successor, King Krishna I (768), bear the legend Parama Maheshwara (another name for Shiva). The kings' titles such as Veeranarayana showed their Vaishnava leanings. Their flag had the sign of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, perhaps copied from the Badami Chalukyas.[127] The famous Kailasnatha temple at Ellora and other rock-cut caves attributed to them show that the Hinduism was flourishing.[126] Their family deity was a goddess by name Latana (also known as Rashtrashyena, Manasa Vindyavasini) who took the form of a falcon to save the kingdom.[128] They built temples with icons and ornamentation that satisfied the needs of different faiths. The temple at Salotgi was meant for followers of Shiva and Vishnu and the temple at Kargudri was meant for worshipers of Shiva, Vishnu and Bhaskara (Surya, the sun god).[122]

In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions,

Mappilas (Moplahs) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets.[131]

Society

Chronicles mention more

Sudras.[133] The Zakaya or Lahud caste consisted of communities specialising in dance and acrobatics.[134] People in the professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobblery, basket making and fishing belonged to specific castes or subcastes. The Antyajas caste provided many menial services to the wealthy. Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in the Sat-Kshatriya sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status.[135][136]

The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy[137] or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts.[138] Also Brahmins increasingly practiced non-Brahminical professions (agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts).[139] Capital punishment, although widespread, was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes (as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime). As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled.[140]

By the 9th century, kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India.[141] Admitting Kshatriyas to Vedic schools along with Brahmins was customary, but the children of the Vaishya and Shudra castes were not allowed. Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions[142] Intercaste marriages in the higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys,[143] but was relatively frequent among other castes.[144] Intercaste functions were rare and dining together between people of various castes was avoided.[145]

Joint families were the norm but legal separations between brothers and even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions.[146] Women and daughters had rights over property and land as there are inscriptions recording the sale of land by women.[147] The arranged marriage system followed a strict policy of early marriage for women. Among Brahmins, boys married at or below 16 years of age and the brides chosen for them were 12 or younger. This age policy was not strictly followed by other castes.[148] Sati (a custom in which a dead man's widow would immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre) was practiced but the few examples noted in inscriptions were mostly in the royal families.[149] The system of shaving the heads of widows was infrequent as epigraphs note that widows were allowed to grow their hair but decorating it was discouraged.[150] The remarriage of a widow was rare among the upper castes and more accepted among the lower castes.[151]

In the general population men wore two simple pieces of cloth, a loose garment on top and a garment worn like a dhoti for the lower part of the body. Only kings could wear turbans, a practice that spread to the masses much later.[152] Dancing was a popular entertainment and inscriptions speak of royal women being charmed by dancers, both male and female, in the king's palace. Devadasis (girls were "married" to a deity or temple) were often present in temples.[153] Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or different species. The Atakur inscription (hero stone, virgal) was made for the favourite hound of the feudatory Western Ganga King Butuga II that died fighting a wild boar in a hunt.[154] There are records of game preserves for hunting by royalty. Astronomy and astrology were well developed as subjects of study,[154] and there were many superstitious beliefs such as catching a snake alive proved a woman's chastity. Old persons suffering from incurable diseases preferred to end their lives by drowning in the sacred waters of a pilgrim site or by a ritual burning.[155]

Literature

Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka

Kannada became more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its script and literature showing remarkable growth, dignity and productivity.[24][27][29] This period effectively marked the end of the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era. Court poets and royalty created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose, poetry, rhetoric, the Hindu epics and the life history of Jain tirthankars. Bilingual writers such as Asaga gained fame,[156] and noted scholars such as the Mahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics in the court of King Amoghavarsha I.[157][158]

The Jain writer

Vemulawada (a Rashtrakuta feudatory), comparing the king's virtues favorably to those of Arjuna. Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his work.[164]

Another notable Jain writer in Kannada was

Sri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III and famed for Shantipurana, his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara. He earned the title Ubhaya Kavichakravathi (supreme poet in two languages) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit. His other writings in Kannada were Bhuvanaika-ramaabhyudaya, Jinaksharamale and Gatapratyagata.[67][165] Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna are called "gems of Kannada literature".[163]

A stanza from the 9th century Kannada classic Kavirajamarga, praising the people for their literary skills

Prose works in

Vemulavada. He was the author of Yasastilaka champu, Nitivakyamrita and other writings. The main aim of the champu writing was to propagate Jain tenets and ethics. The second writing reviews the subject matter of Arthashastra from the standpoint of Jain morals in a clear and pithy manner.[166] Ugraditya, a Jain ascetic from Hanasoge in the modern Mysore district wrote a medical treatise called Kalyanakaraka. He delivered a discourse in the court of Amoghavarsha I encouraging abstinence from animal products and alcohol in medicine.[167][168]

Trivikrama was a noted scholar in the court of King Indra III. His classics were Nalachampu (915), the earliest in champu style in Sanskrit, Damayanti Katha, Madalasachampu and Begumra plates. Legend has it that Goddess

Amoghavarsha I. A theologian, his contributions are Dhavala and Jayadhavala (written with another theologian Virasena). These writings are named after their patron king who was also called Athishayadhavala. Other contributions from Jinasena were Adipurana, later completed by his disciple Gunabhadra, Harivamsha and Parshvabhyudaya.[157]

Architecture

Kailasanath Temple at Ellora, Maharashtra

The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into three schools: Ellora, around Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga.[169] The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, areas also occupied by Jain monks, located in present-day

Pandyan influence. Cave temples occupied by Hindus are from later periods.[170]

The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at

Parvathi
while the ceilings have paintings.

The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used is Karnata Dravida according to Adam Hardy. It does not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at

Kalachuri, others claim that it was built during the Rashtrakuta period.[176] Some of the sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel in beauty and craftsmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures.[177] Famous sculptures at Elephanta include Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurthy. The latter, a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is 25 feet (8 m) tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. It is said that, in the world of sculpture, few works of art depicting a divinity are as balanced.[178]

In

Hoysalas at Belur and Halebidu.[182] One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time which Adam Hardy calls Karnata dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.[183]

Language

9th century Old Kannada inscription at Navalinga temple in Kuknur, Karnataka

With the ending of the

devotional movements of later centuries.[185]

Contemporaneous literature and inscriptions show that Kannada was not only popular in the modern Karnataka region but had spread further north into present day southern Maharashtra and to the northern Deccan by the 8th century.

Amoghavarsha I, shows that the study of poetry was popular in the Deccan during this time. Trivikrama's Sanskrit writing, Nalachampu, is perhaps the earliest in the champu style from the Deccan.[191]


See also

Notes

  1. .
  2. ^ a b The Rise and Decline of Buddhism in India, K.L. Hazara, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995, pp288–294
  3. ^ Reu (1933), p39
  4. Reu
    (1933), pp1–5
  5. ^ Altekar (1934), pp1–32
  6. ^ Reu (1933), pp6–9, pp47–53
  7. ^ a b c Kamath (2001), p72–74
  8. ^ Reu (1933), p1
  9. ^ Kamath (2001), p72
  10. ^ Reu (1933), pp1–15
  11. ^ . It is most likely that they were Kannada-speaking military aristocrats settled at a strategic point in modern-day Maharasthra by the Chalukyas or some other powerful group, perhaps to keep an eye on trade routes and various tribal peoples.
  12. ^ A Kannada dynasty was created in Berar under the rule of Badami Chalukyas (Altekar 1934, p21–26)
  13. ^ Kamath 2001, p72–3
  14. ^ Singh (2008), p556
  15. ^ a b Shetty, Sadanand Ramakrishna (1994). Banavasi Through the Ages. Banavasi (India): Printwell. p. 121.:"The community of the land tillers or agriculturists was known as Vokkaligas. The importance given to the cultivation of land is amply demonstrated by the fact that numerous tanks were dug and irrigation facilities were provided at various places. Some of the Rashtrakuta inscriptions found in the Banavasi province have the depiction of a plow. It is viewed that the Rashtrakutas were originally prosperous cultivators who later dominated the political scene. Some of the inscriptions refer to them as "Kutumbinah" which is interpreted as cultivators."
  16. ^ A.C. Burnell in Pandit Reu (1933), p4
  17. ^ C.V. Vaidya (1924), p171
  18. ^ D.R.Bhandarkar in Reu, (1933), p1, p7
  19. ^ Hultzsch and Reu in Reu (1933), p2, p4
  20. ^ J. F. Fleet in Reu (1933), p6
  21. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p73
  22. ^ a b Pollock 2006, p332
  23. ^ a b Houben(1996), p215
  24. ^ a b Altekar (1934), p411–3
  25. ^ Dalby (1998), p300
  26. ^ Sen (1999), pp380-381
  27. ^ a b c During the rule of the Rashtrakutas, literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered (Kamath 2001, pp 88–90)
  28. ^ Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities – Thapar (2003), p334
  29. ^ a b Narasimhacharya (1988), pp17–18, p68
  30. ^ Altekar (1934), pp21–24
  31. ^ Possibly Dravidian Kannada origin (Karmarkar 1947 p26)
  32. ^ Masica (1991), p45-46
  33. ^ Rashtrakutas are described as Kannadigas from Lattaluru who encouraged the Kannada language (Chopra, Ravindran, Subrahmanian 2003, p87)
  34. .
  35. ^ Reu (1933), p54
  36. ^ From Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Badami Chalukya army Karnatabala (power of Karnata) (Kamath 2001, p57, p65)
  37. ^ Altekar in Kamath (2001), p72
  38. ^ Sastri (1955), p141
  39. ^ Thapar (2003), p333
  40. ^ a b c d Sastri (1955), p143
  41. ^ Sen (1999), p368
  42. ^ Desai and Aiyar in Kamath (2001), p75
  43. ^ Reu (1933), p62
  44. ^ a b Sen (1999), p370
  45. ^ The Rashtrakutas interfered effectively in the politics of Kannauj (Thapar 2003), p333
  46. ^ From the Karda inscription, a digvijaya (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p75)
  47. .
  48. ^ The ablest of the Rashtrakuta kings (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77)
  49. ^ Modern Morkhandi (Mayurkhandi in Bidar district (Kamath 2001, p76)
  50. ^ modern Morkhand in Maharashtra (Reu 1933, p65)
  51. ^ Sooloobunjun near Ellora (Couseris in Altekar 1934, p48). Perhaps Elichpur remained the capital until Amoghavarsha I built Manyakheta. From the Wani-Dmdori, Radhanpur and Kadba plates, Morkhand in Maharashtra was only a military encampment, from the Dhulia and Pimpen plates it seems Nasik was only a seat of a viceroy, and the Paithan plates of Govinda III indicate that neither Latur nor Paithan was the early capital.(Altekar, 1934, pp47–48)
  52. ^ Kamath 2001, MCC, p76
  53. ^ From the Sanjan inscriptions, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "The Rashrakutas". 1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
  54. ^ a b Keay (2000), p199
  55. ^ From the Nesari records (Kamath 2001, p76)
  56. ^ Reu (1933), p65
  57. ^ Sastri (1955), p144
  58. ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013), p95, Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 – AD 1124). Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks
  59. ^ "The victorious march of his armies had literally embraced all the territory between the Himalayas and Cape Comorin" (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77)
  60. ^ Sen (1999), p371
  61. ^ Which could put to shame even the capital of gods-From Karda plates (Altekar 1934, p47)
  62. ^ A capital city built to excel that of Indra (Sastri, 1955, p4, p132, p146)
  63. ^ Reu 1933, p71
  64. ^ from the Cambay and Sangli records. The Bagumra record claims that Amoghavarsha saved the "Ratta" kingdom which was drowned in an "ocean of Chalukyas" (Kamath 2001, p78)
  65. ^ Sastri (1955), p145
  66. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p1
  67. ^ a b c Kamath (2001), p90
  68. ^ a b Reu (1933), p38
  69. ^ Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p80
  70. ^ a b Sastri (1955), p161
  71. ^ From the writings of Adikavi Pampa (Kamath 2001, p81)
  72. ^ Sen (1999), pp373-374
  73. ^ Kamath (2001), p82
  74. ^ The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta gained control over Kannauj for a brief period during the early 10th century (Thapar 2003, p333)
  75. ^ From the Siddalingamadam record of 944 – Krishna III captured Kanchi and Tanjore as well and had full control over northern Tamil regions (Aiyer in Kamath 2001, pp82–83)
  76. ^ From the Tirukkalukkunram inscription – Kanchi and Tanjore were annexed by Krishna III. From the Deoli inscription – Krishna III had feudatories from Himalayas to Ceylon. From the Laksmeshwar inscription – Krishna III was an incarnation of death for the Chola Dynasty (Reu 1933, p83)
  77. ^ Conqueror of Kanchi, (Thapar 2003, p334)
  78. ^ Conqueror of Kanchi and Tanjore (Sastri 1955, p162)
  79. ^ Sen 1999), pp374-375
  80. .
  81. ^ "Amoghavarsha IV". 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 25 April 2007.
  82. ^ The province of Tardavadi in the very heart of the Rashtrakuta empire was given to Tailapa II as a fief (provincial grant) by Rashtrakuta Krishna III for services rendered in war (Sastri 1955, p162)
  83. ^ Kamath (2001), p101
  84. ^ Kamath (2001), pp100–103
  85. ^ Reu (1933), p39–41
  86. ^ a b Keay (2000), p200
  87. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p94
  88. ^ Burjor Avari (2007), India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200, pp.207–208, Routledge, New York,
  89. ^ Reu (1933), p93
  90. ^ Reu (1933), p100
  91. ^ Reu (1933), p113
  92. ^ Reu (1933), p110
  93. ^ Jain (2001), pp67–75
  94. ^ Reu (1933), p112
  95. ^ De Bruyne (1968)
  96. ^ Majumdar (1966), pp50–51
  97. OCLC 250247191
    .
  98. ^ whose main responsibility was to draft and maintain inscriptions or Shasanas as would an archivist. (Altekar in Kamath (2001), p85
  99. ^ Kamath (2001), p86
  100. ^ From the notes of Al Masudi (Kamath 2001, p88)
  101. ^ Kamath (2001), p88
  102. ^ Altekar (1934), p356
  103. ^ a b Altekar (1934), p354
  104. ^ Altekar (1934), p355
  105. ^ From notes of Periplus, Al Idrisi and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p357)
  106. ^ Altekar (1934), p358
  107. ^ Altekar (1934), p358–359
  108. ^ a b Altekar (1934), p230
  109. ^ Altekar (1934), p368
  110. ^ Altekar (1934), p370–371
  111. ^ Altekar (1934), p223
  112. ^ Altekar (1934), p213
  113. ^ From the Davangere inscription of Santivarma of Banavasi-12000 province (Altekar 1934, p234
  114. ^ From the writings of Chandesvara (Altekar 1934, p216)
  115. ^ a b Altekar (1934), p222
  116. ^ From the notes of Al Idrisi (Altekar (1934), p223
  117. ^ From the Begumra plates of Krishna II (Altekar 1934, p227
  118. ^ Altekar (1934), p242
  119. ^ From the writings of Somadeva (Altekar 1934, p244)
  120. ^ From the Hebbal inscriptions and Torkhede inscriptions of Govinda III (Altekar 1934, p232
  121. ^ "Wide and sympathetic tolerance" in general characterised the Rashtrakuta rule (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p92)
  122. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p92
  123. ^ Altekar in Kamath (2001), p92
  124. ^ Reu (1933), p36
  125. ^ The Vaishnava Rashtrakutas patronised Jainism (Kamath 2001, p92)
  126. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p91
  127. ^ Reu (1933), p34
  128. ^ Reu (1933, p34
  129. ^ A 16th-century Buddhist work by Lama Taranatha speaks disparagingly of Shankaracharya as close parallels in some beliefs of Shankaracharya with Buddhist philosophy was not viewed favourably by Buddhist writers (Thapar 2003, pp 349–350, 397)
  130. ^ From the notes of 10th-century Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri (Sastri 1955, p396)
  131. ^ From the notes of Masudi (916) (Sastri 1955, p396)
  132. ^ From the notes of Magasthenesis and Strabo from Greece and Ibn Khurdadba and Al Idrisi from Arabia (Altekar 1934, p317)
  133. ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p317)
  134. ^ Altekar (1934), p318
  135. ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p324)
  136. ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, pp330–331)
  137. ^ From the notes of Alberuni, Altekar (1934) p325
  138. ^ From the notes of Abuzaid (Altekar 1934, p325)
  139. ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p326)
  140. ^ Altekar (1934), p329
  141. ^ From the notes of Yuan Chwang, Altekar (1934), p331
  142. ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p332, p334)
  143. ^ From the notes of Ibn Khurdadba (Altekar 1934, p337)
  144. ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p337)
  145. ^ From the notes of Al Masudi and Al Idrisi (Altekar 1934, p339)
  146. ^ From the Tarkhede inscription of Govinda III, (Altekar 1934, p339)
  147. ^ Altekar (1934), p341
  148. ^ From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p342)
  149. ^ From the notes of Sulaiman and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p343)
  150. ^ Altekar (1934), p345
  151. ^ From the notes of Ibn Khurdadba (Altekar 1934, p346)
  152. ^ Altekar (1934), p349
  153. ^ Altekar (1934), p350
  154. ^ a b Altekar (1934), p351
  155. ^ From the notes of Ibn Kurdadba (Altekar 1934, p353)
  156. ^ Warder A.K. (1988), p. 248
  157. ^ a b c Kamath (2001), p89
  158. ^ The Bedande and Chattana type of composition (Narasimhacharya 1988, p12)
  159. ^ It is said Kavirajamarga may have been co-authored by Amoghavarsha I and court poet Sri Vijaya (Sastri 1955, pp355–356)
  160. ^ Other early writers mentioned in Kavirajamarga are Vimala, Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabhandu for Kannada prose and Kavisvara, Pandita, Chandra and Lokapala in Kannada poetry (Narasimhacharya 1988, p2)
  161. ^ Warder A.K. (1988), p240
  162. ^ a b Sastri (1955), p356
  163. ^ L.S. Seshagiri Rao in Amaresh Datta (1988), p1180
  164. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988, p18
  165. ^ a b Sastri (1955), p314
  166. ^ Narasimhachar (1988), p11
  167. ^ Hardy (1995), p111
  168. .
  169. ^ Takeo Kamiya. "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent". Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, India. Retrieved 18 April 2007.
  170. ^ Takeo Kamiya. "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent,20 September 1996". Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
  171. ^ Hardy (1995), p327
  172. ^ Vincent Smith in Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
  173. ^ Percy Brown and James Fergusson in Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
  174. ^ Kamath (2001), p93
  175. ^ Arthikaje in Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
  176. ^ Grousset in Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
  177. ^ Vijapur, Raju S. "Reclaiming past glory". Deccan Herald. Spectrum. Archived from the original on 18 May 2008. Retrieved 27 February 2007.
  178. ^ Hardy (1995), p.341
  179. ^ Hardy (1995), p344-345
  180. ^ Sundara and Rajashekar, Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
  181. ^ Hardy (1995), p5 (introduction)
  182. ^ Thapar (2002), pp393–4
  183. ^ Thapar (2002), p396
  184. ^ Vaidya (1924), p170
  185. ^ Sastri (1955), p355
  186. ^ Rice, E.P. (1921), p12
  187. ^ Rice, B.L. (1897), p497
  188. ^ Altekar (1934), p404
  189. ^ Altekar (1934), p408

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