Rattlesnake

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about the reptile. For other uses, see Rattlesnake (disambiguation) and Rattler (disambiguation).

Rattlesnake
Crotalus cerastes
Crotalus cerastes
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Viperidae
Subfamily: Crotalinae
Included genera
Excluded genera

The subfamily also includes many genera of pit vipers that are not rattlesnakes.

Rattlesnakes are

predators
that live in a wide array of habitats, hunting small animals such as birds and rodents.

Rattlesnakes receive their name from the rattle located at the end of their tails, which makes a loud rattling noise when vibrated that deters predators.[2] Rattlesnakes are the leading contributor to snakebite injuries in North America, but rarely bite unless provoked or threatened; if treated promptly, the bites are seldom fatal.

The 36 known

species of rattlesnakes have between 65 and 70 subspecies,[3] all native to the Americas, ranging from central Argentina to southern Canada. The largest rattlesnake, the eastern diamondback, can measure up to 2.4 m (7.9 ft) in length.[4]

Rattlesnakes are preyed upon by

neonates, while they are still weak and immature. Large numbers of rattlesnakes are killed by humans. Rattlesnake populations in many areas are severely threatened by habitat destruction, poaching
, and extermination campaigns.

Etymology

The scientific name Crotalus is derived from the

Latinized form of the Greek word for "tail rattler" (Σείστρουρος, seistrouros) and shares its root with the ancient Egyptian musical instrument the sistrum, a type of rattle.[6]

Ecology

Range and habitat

Crotalus atrox
), responsible for the majority of venomous snakebites in North America, coiled in defensive posture with rattle erect

Rattlesnakes are native to the Americas from southern Canada to central Argentina, with the majority of species inhabiting

arid regions.[7] The large majority of species live in the American Southwest and Mexico. Four species may be found east of the Mississippi River, and two in South America. In the United States, the state with the most types of rattlesnakes is Arizona, with 13.[8]

Rattlesnakes are found in almost every habitat type capable of supporting terrestrial

forests.[9] Rattlesnakes prefer a temperature range between 80 and 90 °F (27 and 32 °C), but can survive temperatures below freezing, recovering from brief exposure to temperatures as low as 4 °F (−16 °C), and surviving for several days in temperatures as low as 37 °F (3 °C).[10]

The most probable ancestral area of rattlesnakes is the Sierra Madre Occidental region in Mexico. The most probable vegetation or habitat of the ancestral area appears to be pine-oak forests.[11]

Prey

Rattlesnakes typically consume

scent.[16][17] When it locates the fallen prey, it checks for signs of life by prodding with its snout, flicking its tongue, and using its sense of smell. Once the prey has become incapacitated, the rattlesnake locates its head by odors emitted from the mouth. The prey is then ingested head first, which allows wings and limbs to fold at the joints in a manner that minimizes the girth of the meal.[18] The gastric fluids of rattlesnakes are extremely powerful, allowing for the digestion of flesh and bone. Optimal digestion occurs when the snake maintains a body temperature between 80 and 85 °F (27 and 29 °C). If the prey is small, the rattlesnake often continues hunting. If the meal was adequate, the snake finds a warm, safe location in which to coil up and rest until the prey is digested.[19] Feeding habits play an important ecological role by limiting the size of rodent populations, which prevents crop damage and stabilizes ecosystems.[20]

Hydration

Rattlesnakes are believed to require at least their own body weight in water annually to remain

ponds, etc.), they submerge their heads and ingest water by opening and closing their jaws, which sucks in water. If drinking dew or small puddles, they sip the liquid either by capillary action or by flattening and flooding their lower jaws.[21]

In desert environments, scientists observe that rattlesnakes have evolved to stay hydrated by coiling up and flattening so that their bodies can collect rain.[22] In some instances, they aggregated in a carpet-like formation to make a larger rain-collecting platform.[23]

Predators

Newborn rattlesnakes are heavily preyed upon by a variety of species, including

indigo snakes, and kingsnakes.[25]

The

vipers, and rattlesnakes form part of its natural diet. Rattlesnakes sense kingsnakes' presence by their odor.[26] When they realize a kingsnake is nearby, they begin enacting a set of defensive postures known as "body bridging". Unlike its normal erect and coiled defensive-striking posture, the rattlesnake keeps its head low to the ground in an attempt to prevent the kingsnake from gaining a hold on it (the head being the first part of the rattlesnake to be ingested). The rattlesnake jerks its body about, while bridging its back upwards, forming an elevated coil that faces the kingsnake. The elevated coil is used to strike the attacker, and is also used to shield the head from the kingsnake.[27]

Anatomy

Sensory organs

Like all pit vipers, rattlesnakes have two organs that can sense radiation; their eyes and a set of heat-sensing "pits" on their faces that enable them to locate prey and move towards it, based on the prey's thermal radiation signature. These pits have a relatively short effective range of about 1 ft (0.30 m) but give the rattlesnake a distinct advantage in hunting for warm-blooded creatures at night.[28][29]

Viperidae
.
1. Trigeminal nerve extending into the heat-sensing pit 2. Trigeminal nerve originating in the brain 3. Heat-sensing pit

Heat-sensing pits

Aside from their eyes, rattlesnakes are able to detect thermal radiation emitted by

warm-blooded organisms in their environment.[30] Functioning optically like a pinhole camera eye, thermal radiation in the form of infrared light passes through the opening of the pit and strikes the pit membrane located in the back wall, warming this part of the organ.[31][32] Due to the high density of heat-sensitive receptors innervating this membrane, the rattlesnake can detect temperature changes of 0.003 °C or less in its immediate surroundings.[31] Infrared cues from these receptors are transmitted to the brain by the trigeminal nerve, where they are used to create thermal maps of the snake's surroundings.[33] Due to the small sizes of the pit openings, typically these thermal images are low in resolution and contrast. Nevertheless, rattlesnakes superimpose visual images created from information from the eyes with these thermal images from the pit organs to more accurately visualize their surroundings in low levels of light.[33] Research conducted recently on the molecular mechanism of this ability suggests the temperature sensitivity of these pit organs is closely linked to the activity of transient receptor potential ankyrin 1, a temperature-sensitive ion channel saturated in the pit membrane.[33]

Eyes

Rattlesnake eyes, which contain many

cone cells, which means they are capable of some form of color vision. The rattlesnake eye lacks a fovea, making vision of sharply defined images impossible. Instead, they mostly rely on the perception of movement.[34] Rattlesnake eyes are capable of horizontal rotation, but they do not appear to move their eyeballs to follow moving objects.[36]

Smell

Rattlesnakes have an exceptionally keen sense of

Jacobson's organs in the roof of their mouths.[37][38]

Auditory system

Like all snakes, rattlesnakes lack external ear openings, and the structures of their

auditory nerve.[34]

Fangs

Rattlesnake skull

Rattlesnake fangs are connected by venom ducts to large venom glands near the outer edge of the upper jaw, towards the rear of the head. When the rattlesnake bites, muscles on the sides of the venom glands contract to squeeze the venom through the ducts and into the fangs. When the fangs are not in use, they remain folded against the palate.[39][40]

Rattlesnakes are born with fully functioning fangs and venom, and are capable of killing prey at birth.[25][41] Adult rattlesnakes shed their fangs every 6–10 weeks. At least three pairs of replacement fangs lie behind the functional pair.[42]

Venom

Rattlesnake venom is hemotoxic, destroying tissue, causing

laboratory mice.[48]

Rattlesnake venom is a mixture of five to fifteen

polypeptides. More specifically, there are three main families of toxins in rattlesnakes: phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), and snake venom serine proteinases (SVSPs).[49] It contains components meant to immobilize and disable the prey, as well as digestive enzymes, which break down tissue to prepare for later ingestion.[38][42] The venom is very stable, and retains its toxicity for many years in storage.[38]

Snake venom, in general, has a complex and ongoing evolutionary process, and rattlesnake venom is no different. The primary mechanisms of evolution are both gene duplication and gene loss events. The duplication events provided material for neofunctionalization to create the novel toxin genes, while gene loss influenced speciation and helped lead to such a wide variety of “chemical cocktails” in rattlesnake venoms.[49] The prevailing theory for the driving force of this evolution is directional selection, where efficacy on prey is selected for. Diversity in prey leads to less specificity in toxins, while highly specialized toxins are more likely to develop when there are few key prey species.[50] However, recently, balancing selection has been indicated to better explain the maintenance of adaptive genetic diversity in venom-related genes, potentially allowing for the rattlesnakes to better keep up in the evolutionary arms race with their prey.[51]

Older snakes possess more potent venom, and larger snakes are frequently capable of storing larger volumes of it.[52]

Rattle

Rattlesnake rattle
Drawing of the rattle
Rattlesnake
The characteristic sound of a rattlesnake – the rattle shaking, as a result of extremely rapid tail movement
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Video of a timber rattlesnake shaking its rattle

The rattle serves as a warning for predators of the rattlesnake.[53] The rattle is composed of a series of hollow, interlocked segments made of keratin, which are created by modifying the scales that cover the tip of the tail. The contraction of special "shaker" muscles in the tail causes these segments to vibrate against one another, thus making the rattling noise (which is amplified because the segments are hollow) in a behavior known as tail vibration.[1][54][55] The muscles which cause rattling are some of the fastest known, firing 50 times per second on average, sustainable for a duration of up to three hours.[56]

In 2016, Allf et al. published a paper proposing

Viperidae and Colubridae. Their results demonstrated that the more closely related a species was to rattlesnakes, the more similar that species was to rattlesnakes in both duration and rate of tail vibration.[57] These results strongly support the hypothesis that tail vibration preceded the rattling system as a behavior and allowed for the rattle to be selected for once developed. Even a small, underdeveloped rattle early in the evolution of the rattling system could have been advantageous if tail vibration was an ancestral behavior.[60]

At birth, a "prebutton" is present at the tip of the snake's tail; it is replaced by the "button" several days later when the first skin is shed. However, no sound can be made by the rattle until a second segment is added when the skin is shed again.[61] A new rattle segment is added each time the snake sheds its skin, and the snake may shed its skin several times a year, depending on food supply and growth rate.

Rattlesnakes travel with their rattles held up to protect them from damage, but in spite of this precaution, their day-to-day activities in the wild still cause them to regularly break off end segments. Because of this, the number of rattles on its tail is not related to the age of a rattlesnake.[1][55][56]

Compared to females, males have thicker and longer tails (because they contain the inverted hemipenes). Also, the tails of males taper gradually from the body, whereas the tails of females narrow abruptly at the vent.[62]

Skin and circulation

Rattlesnakes, like other members of the

arteries.[64]

Rattlesnake skin has a set of overlapping scales that cover the entire body, providing protection from a variety of threats, including dehydration and physical trauma.[65] The typical rattlesnake, genus Crotalus, has the top of its head covered with small scales, except, with a few species, a few crowded plates directly over the snout.[66] The skin of snakes is highly sensitive to contact, tension, and pressure; they are capable of feeling pain.[67]

An important function of the skin is the sensation of changes in air temperature, which can guide the snakes towards warm basking/shelter locations.

Nerves in the skin regulate the flow of blood into the veins near the surface.[67]

The skin of rattlesnakes is intricately patterned in a manner that

camouflages them from their predators.[68][69] Rattlesnakes do not generally have bright or showy colors (reds, yellows, blues, etc.), instead relying on subtle earth tones that resemble the surrounding environment.[70]

Creases in the epidermal tissue connect the scales of rattlesnakes. When ingesting large prey, these creases can unfold, allowing the skin to expand to envelop a much greater volume. The skin appears to tightly stretch to accommodate the meal, but in reality, the skin is simply smoothing out from its creased state and is not under very high tension.[71]

Reproduction

northern Pacific rattlesnakes
(C. oreganus oreganus) engage in a "combat dance"
C. adamanteus

Most rattlesnake species mate during the summer or fall, while some species mate only in the spring, or during both the spring and fall.[72]

Females secrete small amounts of sex pheromones, which leave a trail the males follow using their tongues and Jacobson's organs as guides.[72] Once a receptive female has been located, the male often spends several days following her around (a behavior not common outside of the mating season), frequently touching and rubbing her in an attempt to stimulate her.[73][74]

The males of some species, such as timber rattlesnakes (C. horridus), fight each other during the mating season, in competition over females. These fights, known as "combat dances", consist of the two males intertwining the anterior portion of their bodies, often with their heads and necks held vertically. The larger males usually end up driving the smaller males away.[75][76]

Although many kinds of snakes and other reptiles are

spermathecae, which permits them to mate during the fall, but not fertilize the ova until the following spring.[73] The Arizona black rattlesnake (C. oreganus cerberus), has been observed to exhibit complex social behavior reminiscent of that in mammals. Females often remain with their young in nests for several weeks, and mothers have been observed co-operatively parenting their broods.[78]

Rattlesnakes generally take several years to mature, and females usually reproduce only once every three years.[79]

Brumation

In the colder winter months, some rattlesnake species enter a period of brumation, which is dormancy similar to hibernation. They often gather together for brumation in large numbers (sometimes over 1,000 snakes), huddling together inside underground "rattlesnake dens" or hibernacula.[80][81] They regularly share their winter burrows with a wide variety of other species (such as turtles, small mammals, invertebrates, and other types of snakes).[80]

Rattlesnakes often return to the same den, year after year, sometimes traveling several miles to get there. How the rattlesnakes find their way back to the dens each year is unknown, but may involve a combination of pheromone trails and visual cues (e.g., topography, celestial navigation, and solar orientation).[82]

Species with long periods of brumation tend to have much lower reproductive rates than those with shorter brumation periods or those that do not brumate at all. Female timber rattlesnakes in high peaks in the Appalachian Mountains of New England reproduce every three years on average; the lance-headed rattlesnake (C. polystictus), native to the warm climate of Mexico, reproduces annually.[83]

Like most other snakes, rattlesnakes

aestivate during very hot or dry periods, which is why they are rarely seen during the hottest and driest months of summer.[84]

Conservation status

Rattlesnakes tend to avoid developed areas, preferring undisturbed, natural habitats. Rapid habitat destruction by humans, mass killings during events such as

massasauga, and canebrake rattlesnake, are listed as threatened or endangered in many U.S. states.[85]

Many rattlesnakes die from being run over by cars.[25]

In more heavily populated and trafficked areas, reports have been increasing of rattlesnakes that do not rattle. This phenomenon is falsely attributed to

selective pressure by humans, who often kill the snakes when they are discovered. However, snake experts have dismissed this theory, stating that snakes simply do not rattle as often as laymen expect them to, and that snakes that live near populated areas simply get used to people passing by, only rattling when a person lingers too long or gets too close.[86]

Safety and first aid

A rattlesnake warning sign in California

Rattlesnakes are the leading cause of snakebite injuries in North America and a significant cause in Central and South America.[45][87]

Avoiding bites

Rattlesnakes tend to avoid wide-open spaces where they cannot hide from predators, and generally avoid humans if they are aware of their approach.[88] Rattlesnakes rarely bite unless they feel threatened or provoked. A majority of victims (about 72%[89]) are males. Around half of bites occur in cases where the victim saw the snake, yet made no effort to move away.[38]

Harassing or attacking a rattlesnake, illegal in some jurisdictions, puts one at much higher risk of a bite. Rattlesnakes seek to avoid humans and other predators or large herbivores that themselves pose lethal danger.

Dogs, often much more aggressive than humans, are much more likely to experience a snakebite, and are more likely to die of a rattlesnake bite although they can be vaccinated against them.[91]

Caution is advised even when snakes are believed to be dead; rattlesnake heads can sense, flick the tongue, and inflict venomous bites

reflexively for up to an hour after being severed from the body.[92][93]

Effect of bites on humans

An estimated 7,000 to 8,000 people are bitten by venomous snakes in the United States each year, with about five deaths.[94] The most important factor in survival following a severe envenomation is the time elapsed between the bite and treatment. Most deaths occur between 6 and 48 hours after the bite. If antivenom treatment is given within two hours of the bite, the probability of recovery is greater than 99%.[95]

When a bite occurs, the amount of venom injected is under voluntary control by the snake. The amount released depends on a variety of factors, including the condition of the snake (e.g., having long, healthy fangs and a full venom sack) and its temperament (an angry, hungry snake that has just been stepped on vs. a satiated snake that was merely surprised by walking near it).[96] About 20% of bites result in no envenomation at all. A lack of burning pain and edema 1 cm (0.39 in) away from the fang marks after one hour suggests either no or minimal envenomation occurred. A lack of edema or erythema in the area of the bite after eight hours indicates a lack of envenomation for most rattlesnake bites.[97]

Common symptoms include swelling, severe pain, tingling, weakness, anxiety,

hemorrhaging, perspiration, and (rarely) heart failure.[96][98] Local pain following envenomation is often intense, increasing with the ensuing edema.[96] Children generally experience more severe symptoms because they receive a larger amount of venom per unit of body mass.[97]

Antivenom

lyophilized powder, which is packaged for distribution and later use by human patients.[100][101]

Because antivenom is derived from animal antibodies, people generally display an

allergic response during infusion, known as serum sickness.[102][103]

Veterinary care

In the United States, more than 15,000 domesticated animals are bitten by snakes each year. Rattlesnake envenomations account for 80% of the deadly incidents.[104]

Dogs are most commonly bitten on the front legs and head. Horses generally receive bites on the

muzzle, and cattle on their tongues and muzzles. If a domesticated animal is bitten, the hair around the bite should be removed so the wound can be clearly seen. The crotaline Fab antivenom has been shown to be effective in the treatment of canine rattlesnake bites. Symptoms include swelling, slight bleeding, sensitivity, shaking, and anxiety.[52]

In human culture

Spirituality

feathered serpents on display at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City

Indigenous Americans

Aztec paintings, Central American temples, and the great burial mounds in the Southern United States are frequently adorned with depictions of rattlesnakes, often within the symbols and emblems of the most powerful deities.[105]

The Feathered Serpent of Mesoamerican religion was depicted as having the combined features of the quetzal and rattlesnake.[106] The Ancient Maya considered the rattlesnake to be a "vision serpent" that acted as a conduit to the "otherworld".[107]

Rattlesnakes are a key element in Aztec mythology and were widely represented in Aztec art, including sculptures, jewelry, and architectural elements.

Christian snake-handling sects

Pentecostal Church of God in the town of Lejunior, Harlan County, Kentucky
, September 15, 1946
Further information: Snake handling in Christianity

Members of some Christian sects in the Southern United States are regularly bitten while participating in "snake handling" rituals. Snake handling is when people hold venomous snakes, unprotected, as part of a religious service inspired by a literal interpretation of the Bible verses Mark 16:17–18, which reads, "In my name ... They shall take up serpents ...."[38][108]

In traditional medicine

Sacagewea‘s son Jean Baptiste Charbonneau
:

The party that were ordered last evening set out early this morning. the weather was fair and could wind N. W. about five o'clock this evening one of the wives of Charbono was delivered of a fine boy. It is worthy of remark that this was the first child which this woman had boarn and as is common in such cases her labour was tedious and the pain violent; Mr. Jessome informed me that he had freequently administered a small portion of the rattle of the rattle-snake, which he assured me had never failed to produce the desired effect, that of hastening the birth of the child; having the rattle of a snake by me I gave it to him and he administered two rings of it to the woman broken in small pieces with the fingers and added to a small quantity of water. Whether this medicine was truly the cause or not I shall not undertake to determine, but I was informed that she had not taken it more than ten minutes before she brought forth perhaps this remedy may be worthy of future experiments, but I must confess that I want faith as to it's efficacy.[109]

As food

Journalist Alistair Cooke claimed that rattlesnake tastes "just like chicken, only tougher".[110] Others have compared the flavor to a wide range of other meats, including veal, frog, tortoise, quail, fish, rabbit, and even canned tuna.[111] Methods of preparation include barbecueing[112] and frying; author Maud Newton, following a recipe by Harry Crews, described the taste, "at least when breaded and fried, like a sinewy, half-starved tilapia."[113]

Symbolism

Gadsden Flag

The rattlesnake became a symbolic animal for the Colonials during the

Gadsden Flag
. It continues to be used as a symbol by the United States military, and political movements within the United States.

See also

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    .
  109. ^ Lewis, Meriwether; Clark, William; Floyd, Charles (1904), Original journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804–1806, vol. 1, p. 257.
  110. OCLC 5311048
    . To the goggling unbeliever Texans say—as people always say about their mangier dishes—'but it's just like chicken, only tenderer.' Rattlesnake is, in fact, just like chicken, only tougher.
  111. ^ Klauber & Greene 1997, p. 1055.
  112. ^ "Recipe: Barbecued rattlesnake". The Seattle Times. November 30, 2004 [Woodall Publications Corp. ©1998]. Archived from the original on 2014-12-18. Retrieved November 21, 2014.
  113. ^ Newton, Maud (2011). "How Does Rattlesnake Taste?". The New York Times. Retrieved November 21, 2014.

Sources

Further reading
Look up rattlesnake in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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