Rebellion of Cao Qin
Rebellion of Cao Qin | |||||||
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The 1461 Rebellion of Cao Qin, which broke out within the Inner City of Beijing, threatened the gates of the Imperial City, which contained the imperial family's residence of the Forbidden City (shown here) at its center. | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Cao Qin and officers | Ming dynasty | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
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The Rebellion of Cao Qin (
The rebellion was a failure: three of Cao's brothers were killed during the ensuing battle, and Cao Qin was forced to commit suicide during a last stand against imperial troops storming his Beijing residential compound. The rebellion marked the high point in political tension over allowing Mongols to be employed in the Ming military command structure. Ming Chinese officials often made recompense with Mongol subordinates for military merits while at the same time strategically relocating their troops and families away from the capital.
Background
The Mongols ruled over the Chinese
During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the Mongols enrolled in military service were either originally prisoners of war or they were those who voluntarily submitted to the Ming and settled in China.
Nonetheless, due to the Ming's rivalry with the Mongol-led North Yuan and Moghulistan empires (two other successor states of the Mongol Empire), Mongols were sometimes held in suspicion by Ming authorities. Mongols of lower social stature were often accused by officials of being prone to violence, banditry, begging, and even prostitution.[4] Ming officials used the excuse of military campaigns to relocate and scatter Mongol troops and families throughout China so that they would not be concentrated in North China (which neighbored the Mongol-led Northern Yuan).[5] Wu Tingyun argues that there was a noticeable shift in Ming court policies after the 1449 Tumu Crisis in dealing with the Mongols; he stated that beforehand the Ming court actively encouraged Mongol immigration, and afterwards merely managed those who had already sided with the Ming.[6][7]
On July 20, 1461, after Mongols had staged raids into Ming territory along the northern tracts of the Yellow River, the Minister of War Ma Ang (馬昂; 1399–1476) and General Sun Tang (孫鏜; died 1471) were appointed to lead a force of 15,000 troops to bolster the defenses of Shaanxi.[8] Historian David M. Robinson states that "these developments must also have fed suspicion about Mongols living in North China, which in turn exacerbated Mongol feelings of insecurity. However, no direct link can be found between the decision by the Ming Mongols in Beijing to join the [1461] coup and activities of steppe Mongols in the northwest."[9]
Day before the coup
On August 6, 1461, the Tianshun Emperor issued an edict telling his nobles and generals to be loyal to the throne. This was a veiled threat to Cao Qin, who had murdered his associate in the
General
Cao either planned to kill Ma Ang and Sun Tang as they were to depart the capital with 15,000 troops to Shaanxi on the morning of August 7, or he simply planned to take advantage of their leave.[15] The conspirators are said to have planned to place their heir apparent on the throne and demote Tianshun's position to "grand senior emperor", the title delegated to him during the years of his house arrest from 1450 to 1457, under Jingtai's rule.[13]
Lu Gao's murder
While Cao held a banquet for his Mongol officers on the night of August 6, two of his Mongol officers slipped away from the festivity and leaked Cao's plot to the high-level Mongol commanders
While his forces searched for Ma Ang and Sun Tang, Cao visited the home of Lu Gao, head of the Imperial Guard who led the efforts to investigate Cao Jixiang and Cao Qin, and killed Lu in his own home (decapitating and dismembering him).[19] After killing Lu Gao, Cao Qin found and detained the Grand Secretary Li Xian (李賢; 1408–1467), showing him the severed head of Lu Gao and explaining that Lu had driven him to rebellion.[20] Li Xian agreed to draft a memorial to the throne explaining that Cao Qin wished the emperor no harm, that his vengeance against Lu Gao was finished, and asked for an imperial pardon.[20] Cao's men had also detained the Minister of Personnel, Wang Ao (王翱; 1384–1467), and using writing materials from his office Li and Wang composed the memorial.[21] Wang and Li slipped the message through the door panels of the gate to the Imperial City, but the gates remained tightly shut, so Cao Qin began calling for the death of Li Xian.[21] Wang Ao and Wan Qi (万祺; died 1484), a director of the Ministry of Personnel, dissuaded Cao Qin from killing Li, noting Li had written the funerary inscription for Cao's adopted father Jixiang.[21]
Failed coup and inner city battle
After Li's message was unable to get through, Cao began the assault on Dongan Gate, East Chang'an Gate, and West Chang'an Gate, setting fire to the western and eastern gates; these fires were extinguished later in the day by pouring rain.[20] Defending these gates were 5,610 imperial bodyguards, who were generously rewarded after the conflict for their merit in maintaining a strong defense.[22] Ming troops poured into the area outside the Imperial City to counterattack; Li Xian and Wang Ao were able to flee, but Wu Jin and the head of the Censorate, Kou Shen (寇深; 1391–1461), were killed by Cao's soldiers.[23] Kou had earlier denounced Cao as a criminal and was an associate of Lu Gao; when Cao's soldiers found Kou in a waiting room outside Chang'an Gate, he cursed at them before they cut him down.[23]
General Sun Tang led the charge against Cao Qin right outside Donghua Gate, while Ma Ang approached Cao Qin's forces from the rear in a flank.
Aftermath
As promised by Grand Secretary Li Xian before the final assault on the Cao residence, imperial troops were allowed to confiscate for themselves what they could find from Cao Qin's property.[27] Li had also given another incentive that any imperial soldier who captured a rebel would be rewarded with the same title and office their captive had.[25] Those found to be followers of Cao Qin were soon after executed, including members of the Imperial Guard and the Yuzhou Guard on August 22, 1461.[25] On August 8, Cao Jixiang was publicly dismembered, a sentence and execution which ministers of state were made aware of by the Tianshun Emperor once he held an audience at the Median Gate.[28] The dismembered corpses of Cao Qin and his brothers were left outside and exposed to the elements.[28] Cao's father-in-law was spared from punishment since it was known that he had refused to communicate with Cao Qin during the latter's rise to power as a career general.[28]
The Tianshun Emperor spared some of the culprits the sentence of death by commuting their sentence to imprisonment instead; this included Vice Commissioner-in-chief
Rewards were given to those who captured the escapees of the plot, including Chen Kui, Grand Defender of Tianjin, who was promoted.[28] On August 9, the Mongol officer Wu Cong was put in charge of the Chief Military Commission of the Left; in September, twenty taels of silver and two-hundred piculs of grain were added to his stipend.[29] Ma Ang was made the Junior Guardian of the Heir Apparent in September.[22] Plaques were made to commemorate the dead who fought against Cao Qin.[30]
Besides the handling of punishments and rewards, the court made other efforts to reestablish order in the capital region. Nonessential taxes were suspended.
Three weeks after Cao Qin's failed uprising, the Mongol leader
Historiography
Pre-modern sources
The general Chinese history texts on the Ming Dynasty, including the Mingdai Shi and the Mingshi, briefly mention Cao Qin's failed coup of 1461.[37][38][39] Cao Qin's coup and the events leading up to it were covered in Gao Dai's Hong you lu of 1573, Jiao Hong's Guochao Xianzheng lu of 1594–1616, the Huang Ming shi gai of 1632 and the Mingshi jishi benmo of 1658.[40] Li Xian also wrote about Cao Jixiang's career in his "Cao Jixiang zhi bian", included in the Huang Ming mingchen jingji lu that was edited by Huang Xun in 1551.[41]
Modern sources
The historian Meng Sen (孟森; 1868–1938), who compiled, edited, and commented on texts dealing with the Ming and Qing eras,[42] stressed that Tianshun was an incompetent ruler for having allowed Shi Heng and Cao Jixiang to develop into formidable threats to central rule.[43][44] Henry Serruys, whom Robinson calls "the most authoritative writer on the Ming Mongols", did not mention this rebellion in any of his written works.[45] Historians Tang Gang and Nan Bingwen remark in their 1985 publication of the Mingshi that the 1461 coup weakened the power of Ming rule.[43][46] The historian David M. Robinson devoted the article Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China to the subject of Cao Qin's rebellion and the Ming Mongols. The historian Okuyama Norio wrote an essay in 1977 arguing that Cao Qin's coup of 1461 should be understood as a single event in the wider context of continuous power struggles between civil officials and military officers during Tianshun's reign.[47][48]
See also
- History of Beijing
- History of the Ming dynasty
- Ming dynasty military conquests
Notes
- ^ Robinson (1999), 84–85.
- ^ a b Serruys (1959), 209.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 95.
- ^ a b Robinson (1999), 117.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 84–96.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 85.
- ^ Wu, 106–111.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 95–96.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 96.
- ^ a b c Robinson (1999), 97.
- ^ a b c Robinson (1999), 100.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 97–98.
- ^ a b Robinson (1999), 99.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 104
- ^ Robinson (1999), 98–99.
- ^ a b c Robinson (1999), 102.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 101.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 103.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 103–104.
- ^ a b c Robinson (1999), 104–105.
- ^ a b c Robinson (1999), 105.
- ^ a b c d e f Robinson (1999), 110.
- ^ a b Robinson (1999), 106–107.
- ^ a b c d Robinson (1999), 107.
- ^ a b c d e f g Robinson (1999), 108.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 106–108.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 108–109.
- ^ a b c d e Robinson (1999), 109.
- ^ a b Robinson (1999), 111.
- ^ a b Robinson (1999), 109–110.
- ^ a b Robinson (1999), 112.
- ^ Robinson (1999), Page 96, footnote 64.
- ^ Serruys (1967), 557, 577–581.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 113–114.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 114–115.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 116–117.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 79.
- ^ Meng, 168–169.
- ^ Tang et al., 248–249.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 97, footnote 66; 98–99, footnote 71.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 100, footnote 78.
- ^ Boorman et al., 32–34.
- ^ a b Robinson (1999), 79–80, footnote 2.
- ^ Meng, 170.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 79–80.
- ^ Tang et al., 250.
- ^ Robinson (1999), 82.
- ^ Okuyama, 25–36.
References
- Boorman, Howard L.; Cheng, Joseph K. H. (1970). Biographical Dictionary of Republican China. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08957-0.
- Meng, Sen (1967). Mingdai Shi. Taipei: Zhonghua congshu weiyuan hui.
- Okuyama, Norio (1977). "Sō Kin no ran no ichi kōsatsu: Mindai chūki no keiei kaikaku to no kanren ni oite". Hokudai shigaku. pp. 25–36.
- Robinson, David M. (1999). "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China: Mongols and the Abortive Coup of 1461". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 59 (1): 79–123. JSTOR 2652684.
- Serruys, Henry (1959). "Mongols Ennobled During The Early Ming". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 22: 209–260. JSTOR 2718543.
- Serruys, Henry (1967). Sino-Mongol Relations During the Ming: The Tribute System and Diplomatic Missions (1400–1600). Bruxelles: Institut Belge des Hautes Études Chinoises.
- Tang, Gang; Bingwen, Nan (1985). Mingshi. Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe.
- Wu, Tingyun (1989). "Tumu zhi bian qianhou de Menggu xiangren". Hebei xuekan. pp. 106–111.