Recovered Territories
The Recovered Territories or Regained Lands (Polish: Ziemie Odzyskane), also known as the Western Borderlands (Polish: Kresy Zachodnie), and previously as the Western and Northern Territories (Polish: Ziemie Zachodnie i Północne), Postulated Territories (Polish: Ziemie Postulowane) and Returning Territories (Polish: Ziemie Powracające), are the former eastern territories of Germany and the Free City of Danzig that became part of Poland after World War II, at which time most of their German inhabitants were forcibly deported.[1][2]
The rationale for the term "Recovered" was that these territories formed part of the Polish state, and were lost by Poland in different periods over the centuries.[3] It also referred to the Piast Concept that these territories were part of the traditional Polish homeland under the Piast dynasty (there were their small parts under Poland even after the Piast ended), after the establishment of the state in the Middle Ages. Over the centuries, however, they had become predominantly German-speaking through the processes of German eastward settlement (Ostsiedlung), political expansion (Drang nach Osten), as well as language shift due to Germanisation of the local Polish, Slavic and Baltic Prussian population.[4] Therefore, aside from certain regions such as West Upper Silesia, Warmia and Masuria, as of 1945 most of these territories did not contain sizeable Polish-speaking communities.
While most regions had long periods of Polish rule, spanning hundreds of years, some were controlled by Polish dukes and kings for short periods of up to several decades at a time. Various regions, when not under Polish rule, were in different times under the authority of the
The great majority of the previous inhabitants either fled from the territories during the later stages of the war or were expelled by the Soviet and Polish communist authorities after the war ended, although a small German minority remains in some places. The territories were resettled with Poles who moved from central Poland, Polish repatriates forced to leave areas of former eastern Poland that had been annexed by the Soviet Union, Poles freed from forced labour in Nazi Germany, with Ukrainians forcibly resettled under "Operation Vistula", and other minorities which settled in post-war Poland, including Greeks and Macedonians.[5]
However, contrary to the official declaration that the former German inhabitants of the Recovered Territories had to be removed quickly to house Poles displaced by the Soviet annexation, the Recovered Territories initially faced a severe population shortage.[6] The Soviet-appointed communist authorities that conducted the resettlement also made efforts to remove many traces of German culture, such as place names and historic inscriptions on buildings.
The post-war border between Germany and Poland (the Oder–Neisse line) was recognized by East Germany in 1950 and by West Germany in 1970, and was affirmed by the re-united Germany in the German–Polish Border Treaty of 1990.
Origin and use of the term
History of Brandenburg and Prussia |
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|
Present |
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The term "Recovered Territories" was officially used for the first time in the Decree of the President of the Republic of 11 October 1938 after the annexation of Trans-Olza by the Polish army.[7] It became the official term[8] coined in the aftermath of World War II to denote the former eastern territories of Germany that were being handed over to Poland, pending a final peace conference with Germany which eventually never took place.[9] The term "Recovered Territories" is a collective term for different areas with different histories, which can be grouped into three categories:
- Those that once had been part of the Polish state during the rule of the Piasts, many of which later on had been part of various Piast, Griffin, Jagiellon and Sobieski-ruled duchies, some up to the 17th and 18th century, although often under foreign suzerainty
- Those that had been part of Poland until the 17th century (northernmost part of Ducal Prussia and the Duchy of Opole, which also falls into the category above)
- Territories that had been part of Poland until the Partitions (Warmia, Malbork Voivodeship, parts of Pomerelia, northern Greater Poland including Piła, Wałcz, and Złotów, which were annexed by Prussia in the First Partition of 1772; and Gdańsk and western parts of Greater Poland including Międzyrzecz and Wschowa, which followed in the Second Partition of 1793)
The underlying concept was to define post-war Poland as heir to the
By 1949, the term "Recovered Territories" had been dropped from
History before 1945
Several different
Mieszko's son and successor, Duke
duchies remained independent Piast holdings.In the course of the 12th to 14th centuries, Germanic, Dutch and Flemish settlers moved into East Central and Eastern Europe in a migration process known as the Ostsiedlung. In Pomerania, Brandenburg, Prussia and Silesia, the indigenous West Slav (Polabian Slavs and Poles) or Balt population became minorities in the course of the following centuries, although substantial numbers of the original inhabitants remained in areas such as Upper Silesia. In Greater Poland and in Eastern Pomerania (Pomerelia), German settlers formed a minority.
Despite the loss of several provinces, medieval lawyers of the Kingdom of Poland created a specific claim to all formerly Polish provinces that were not reunited with the rest of the country in 1320. They built on the theory of the Corona Regni Poloniae, according to which the state (the Crown) and its interests were no longer strictly connected with the person of the monarch. Because of that no monarch could effectively renounce Crown claims to any of the territories that were historically and/or ethnically Polish. Those claims were reserved for the state (the Crown), which in theory still covered all of the territories that were part of, or dependent on, the Polish Crown upon the death of Bolesław III in 1138.
This concept was also developed to prevent from loss of territory after the death of King Casimir III the Great in 1370, when Louis I of Hungary, who ruled Hungary with absolute power, was crowned King of Poland. In the 14th century Hungary was one of the greatest powers of Central Europe, and its influence reached various Balkan principalities and southern Italy (Naples). Poland in personal union with Hungary was the smaller, politically weaker and peripheral country. In the Privilege of Koszyce (1374) King Louis I guaranteed that he would not detach any lands from the Polish Kingdom.[28] The concept was not new, as it was inspired by similar Bohemian (Czech) laws (Corona regni Bohemiae).
Some of the territories (such as
Many significant events in Polish history are associated with these territories, including the victorious battles of Cedynia (972), Niemcza (1017), Psie Pole and Głogów (1109), Grunwald (1410), Oliwa (1627), the lost battles of Legnica (1241) and Westerplatte (1939), the life and work of astronomers Nicolaus Copernicus (16th century) and Johannes Hevelius (17th century), the creation of the oldest Polish-language texts and printings (Middle Ages and the Renaissance era), the creation of the standards and patterns of the Polish literary language (Renaissance era), Polish maritime history, the establishment of one of the first Catholic dioceses in Poland in the Middle Ages (in Wrocław and Kołobrzeg), as well as the Polish Reformation in the Renaissance era.
Significant figures were born or lived in these territories. Astronomer
By the time that Poland regained her independence in 1918, Polish activist Dr. Józef Frejlich was already claiming that the lands situated on the right bank of the Oder river, including inner industrial cities such as Wrocław, and Baltic ports such as Szczecin and Gdańsk, were economic parts of Poland that had to be united with the rest of the "economic territory of Poland"[30] into a united and independent state, as a fundamental condition of the economic revival of Poland after World War I.[31]
After the successful
Most of long Germanized
In the
Pomerania
The
Gdańsk, Lębork and Bytów
The region of
Most cities of the region joined or sided with the
Lubusz Land and parts of Greater Poland
The medieval
Brandenburg also acquired the castellany of
A small part of northern Greater Poland around the town of
Silesia
Piast dukes continued to rule Silesia following the 12th-century
The first German colonists arrived in the late 12th century, and large-scale German settlement started in the early 13th century during the reign of
Warmia and Masuria
The territories of
Polish suzerainty over Masuria ended in 1657/1660 as a result of the Deluge and Warmia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in the First Partition of Poland (1772). Both regions formed the southern part of the province of East Prussia, established in 1773.
All of Warmia and most of Masuria remained part of Germany after World War I and the re-establishment of independent Poland. During the 1920 East Prussian Plebiscite, the districts east of the Vistula within the region of Marienwerder (Kwidzyn), along with all of the Allenstein Region (Olsztyn) and the district of Oletzko voted to be included within the province of East Prussia and thus became part of Weimar Germany. All of the region as the southern part of the province of East Prussia became part of Poland after World War II, with northern East Prussia going to the Soviet Union to form the Kaliningrad Oblast.
Polish minorities already living in the Recovered Territories
Since the time of the
Before the outbreak of war, regions of
Under German rule, these communities faced discrimination and oppression.[citation needed] In 1924, an association of national minorities was founded in Germany, also representing the Polish minority. Jan Baczewski from Warmia, member of the Landtag of Prussia, initiated a law allowing the founding of schools for national minorities.[50] In 1938, the Nazi government changed thousands of place-names (especially of cities and villages) of Polish origin to newly invented German place-names; about 50% of the existing names were changed in that year alone.[51] Also, undercover operatives were sent to spy on Polish communities. Information was gathered on who sent their children to Polish schools, or bought Polish books and newspapers. Polish schools, printing presses, headquarters of Polish institutions as well as private homes and shops owned by Poles were routinely attacked by members of the Schutzstaffel (SS).[52] Although, thousands of Poles forcefully or voluntary migrated to this lands during World War II.
Also, small isolated enclaves of ethnic Poles could be found in Pomerania, Lubusz Land and Lower Silesia. These included scattered villages which remained ethnically Polish and large cities such as Wrocław (Breslau), Szczecin (Stettin) and Zielona Góra (Grünberg in Schlesien) which contained small Polish communities.[53][54][55]
Origin of the post-war population according to 1950 census
During the Polish post-war census of December 1950, data about the pre-war places of residence of the inhabitants as of August 1939 was collected. (In the case of children born between September 1939 and December 1950, their place of residence was reported based on the pre-war places of residence of their mothers.) Thanks to this data it is possible to reconstruct the pre-war geographical origin of the post-war population. Many areas located near the pre-war German border were resettled by people from neighbouring borderland areas of pre-war Poland. For example,
Region (within 1939 borders): | West Upper Silesia | Lower Silesia | East Brandenburg | West Pomerania | Free City Danzig | South East Prussia | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Autochthons (1939 German/Danzig citizens) | 789,716 | 120,885 | 14,809 | 70,209 | 35,311 | 134,702 | 1,165,632 |
Polish expellees from Kresy (USSR) | 232,785 | 696,739 | 187,298 | 250,091 | 55,599 | 172,480 | 1,594,992 |
Poles from abroad except the USSR | 24,772 | 91,395 | 10,943 | 18,607 | 2,213 | 5,734 | 153,664 |
Resettlers from the City of Warsaw
|
11,333 | 61,862 | 8,600 | 37,285 | 19,322 | 22,418 | 160,820 |
From Warsaw region (Masovia) | 7,019 | 69,120 | 16,926 | 73,936 | 22,574 | 158,953 | 348,528 |
From Białystok region and Sudovia | 2,229 | 23,515 | 3,772 | 16,081 | 7,638 | 102,634 | 155,869 |
From pre-war Polish Pomerania | 5,444 | 54,564 | 19,191 | 145,854 | 72,847 | 83,921 | 381,821 |
Resettlers from Poznań region
|
8,936 | 172,163 | 88,427 | 81,215 | 10,371 | 7,371 | 368,483 |
Katowice region ( East Upper Silesia )
|
91,011 | 66,362 | 4,725 | 11,869 | 2,982 | 2,536 | 179,485 |
Resettlers from the City of Łódź | 1,250 | 16,483 | 2,377 | 8,344 | 2,850 | 1,666 | 32,970 |
Resettlers from Łódź region | 13,046 | 96,185 | 22,954 | 76,128 | 7,465 | 6,919 | 222,697 |
Resettlers from Kielce region | 16,707 | 141,748 | 14,203 | 78,340 | 16,252 | 20,878 | 288,128 |
Resettlers from Lublin region | 7,600 | 70,622 | 19,250 | 81,167 | 19,002 | 60,313 | 257,954 |
Resettlers from Kraków region | 60,987 | 156,920 | 12,587 | 18,237 | 5,278 | 5,515 | 259,524 |
Resettlers from Rzeszów region
|
23,577 | 110,188 | 13,147 | 57,965 | 6,200 | 47,626 | 258,703 |
place of residence in 1939 unknown | 36,834 | 26,586 | 5,720 | 17,891 | 6,559 | 13,629 | 107,219 |
Total pop. in December 1950 | 1,333,246 | 1,975,337 | 444,929 | 1,043,219 | 292,463 | 847,295 | 5,936,489 |
Polonization of the Recovered Territories
The People's Republic had to locate its population inside the new frontiers in order to solidify the hold over the territories.
The picture of the new western and northern territories being recovered Piast territory was used to forge Polish settlers and "repatriates" arriving there into a coherent community loyal to the new regime,
Great efforts were made to propagate the view of the Piast Concept. It was actively supported by the Catholic Church.[63] The sciences were responsible for the development of this perception of history. In 1945 the Western Institute (Polish: Instytut Zachodni) was founded to coordinate the scientific activities. Its director, Zygmunt Wojciechowski, characterized his mission as an effort to present the Polish history of the region, and project current Polish reality of these countries upon a historical background.[64] Historical scientists, archaeologists, linguists, art historians and ethnologists worked in an interdisciplinary effort to legitimize the new borders.[65] Their findings were popularised in monographs, periodicals, schoolbooks, travel guides, broadcasts and exhibitions.[66] Official maps were drawn showing that the Polish frontiers under the first known Piast princes matched the new ones.[12] According to Norman Davies, the young post-war generation received education informing them that the boundaries of the People's Republic were the same as those on which the Polish nation had developed for centuries. Furthermore, they were instructed that the Polish "Motherland" has always been in the same location, even when "occupied" for long periods of time by foreigners or as political boundaries shifted.[23] Because the Recovered Territories had been under German and Prussian rule for many centuries, many events of this history were perceived as part of "foreign" rather than "local" history in post-war Poland.[67] Polish scholars thus concentrated on the Polish aspects of the territories: medieval Piast history of the region, the cultural, political and economic bonds to Poland, the history of the Polish-speaking population in Prussia and the "Drang nach Osten" as a historical constant since the Middle Ages.[65]
-
Pre-1945 administrative division (yellow)
-
Projected Polish administration (Okreg I-IV) in March, 1945
-
Integration into the Voivodeships of Poland as of June, 1946
-
Present-day administrative division of Poland, Western and Northern Lands in dark green
Removal of Germans and traces of German habitation
The Communist authorities of the Polish People's Republic and some Polish citizens desired to erase all traces of German rule.
The flight and expulsion of the remaining Germans in the first post-war years presaged a broader campaign to remove signs of former German rule.[72]
More than 30,000 German placenames were replaced with Polish
Historian John Kulczycki argues that the Communist authorities discovered that forging an ethnically homogeneous Poland in the Recovered Territories was quite complicated, for it was difficult to differentiate German speakers who were "really" Polish and those who were not. The government used criteria that involved explicit links to Polish ethnicity, as well the person's conduct. Local verification commissions had wide latitude in determining who was or was not Polish and should remain. Their decisions were based on the nationalist assumption that an individual's national identity is a lifetime "ascriptive" characteristic acquired at birth and not easily changed. However people who "betrayed" their Polish heritage by their political words or actions were excluded from the Polish nation. Everyone else was labelled as "Polish" and had to remain in their "native" land – even if they wanted to emigrate to Germany.[80]
Resettlement of the Territories
People from all over Poland quickly moved in to replace the former German population in a process parallel to the expulsions, with the first settlers arriving in March 1945.[81] These settlers took over farms and villages close to the pre-war frontier while the Red Army was still advancing.[81] In addition to the settlers, other Poles went for "szaber" or looting expeditions, soon affecting all former eastern territories of Germany.[81] On 30 March 1945, the Gdańsk Voivodeship was established as the first administrative Polish unit in the "recovered" territories.[82] While the Germans were interned and expelled, close to 5 million settlers[83][84] were either attracted or forced to settle the areas between 1945 and 1950. An additional 1,104,000 people had declared Polish nationality and were allowed to stay (851,000 of those in Upper Silesia), bringing up the number of Poles to 5,894,600 as of 1950.[47] The settlers can be grouped according to their background:
- settlers from Central Poland moving voluntarily (the majority)[83]
- Poles that had been freed from
- so-called "repatriants": Poles expelled from the areas east of the new Polish-Soviet border were preferably settled in the new western territories, where they made up 26% of the population (up to two million)[83][85]
- non-Poles forcibly resettled during the Operation Vistula in 1947. Large numbers of Ukrainians were forced to move from south-eastern Poland under a 1947 Polish government operation aimed at dispersing, and therefore assimilating, those Ukrainians who had not been expelled eastward already, throughout the newly acquired territories. Belarusians living around the area around Białystok were also pressured into relocating to the formerly German areas for the same reasons. This scattering of members of non-Polish ethnic groups throughout the country was an attempt by the Polish authorities to dissolve the unique ethnic identity of groups like the Ukrainians, Belarusians and Lemkos,[86] and broke the proximity and communication necessary for strong communities to form.
- Tens of thousands of Polish 1968 political crisis.[88]
- Greeks and Macedonians, refugees of the Greek Civil War (around 10,000 people)[5]
Polish and Soviet newspapers and officials encouraged Poles to relocate to the west – "the land of opportunity".[83] These new territories were described as a place where opulent villas abandoned by fleeing Germans waited for the brave; fully furnished houses and businesses were available for the taking. In fact, the areas were devastated by the war, the infrastructure largely destroyed, suffering high crime rates and looting by gangs. It took years for civil order to be established.
In 1970, the Polish population of the Northern and Western territories for the first time caught up to the pre-war population level (8,711,900 in 1970 vs 8,855,000 in 1939). In the same year, the population of the other Polish areas also reached its pre-war level (23,930,100 in 1970 vs 23,483,000 in 1939).[47]
Today the population of the territories is predominantly Polish, although a small German minority still exists in a few places, including Olsztyn, Masuria, and Upper Silesia, particularly in Opole Voivodeship (the area of Opole, Strzelce Opolskie, Prudnik, Kędzierzyn-Koźle and Krapkowice).[89]
Role of the Recovered Territories in the Communists' rise to power
The Communist government, not democratically legitimized, sought to legitimize itself through anti-German propaganda.[69] The German "revanchism" was played up as a permanent German threat, with the Communists being the only guarantors and defenders of Poland's continued possession of the "Recovered Territories". Gomułka asserted that:
The western territories are one of the reasons the government has the support of the people. This neutralizes various elements and brings people together. Westward expansion and agricultural reform will bind the nation with the state. Any retreat would weaken our domestic position.[73][90]
The redistribution of "ownerless property" among the people by the regime brought it broad-based popular sympathy.[73]
After the Second World War, the Soviet Union annexed the Polish territory of the
Western territories. Eldorado. In bloody battles, the Polish soldier has liberated very old Polish territories. Polish territory for Poland. 5,000 lorries are available to bring settlers to the west.
Legal status of the territories
During the
Until the Treaty on the Final Settlement, the West German government regarded the status of the German territories east of the Oder-Neisse rivers as that of areas "temporarily under Polish or Soviet administration". To facilitate wide international acceptance of German reunification in 1990, the German political establishment recognized the "facts on the ground" and accepted the clauses in the Treaty on the Final Settlement whereby Germany renounced all claims to territory east of the Oder-Neisse line. This allowed the treaty to be negotiated quickly and for unification of democratic West Germany and socialist East Germany to go ahead quickly.
In accordance with a duty imposed on Germany by the Treaty on the Final Settlement, in the same year, 1990, Germany signed a separate treaty with Poland, the
The signature and ratification of the border treaty between Germany and Poland formalized in international law the recognition of the existing border and put an end to all qualified German claims.
See also
- Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany
- Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union
- Kaliningrad question
- History of German settlement in Central and Eastern Europe
- Former eastern territories of Germany
- Territorial changes of Poland after World War II
- Territorial evolution of Poland
- Polish nationalism
- Irredentism
- Poland A and B
- Polonization
- Germanization
- Russification
Sources
Notes
References
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- ISBN 978-83-86944-75-0, also his previous work Adaptacja i integracja kulturowa ludności Śląska po drugiej wojnie światowej 1969
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Freilich, Joseph (1918). Fundamental Conditions of the Economic Independence of Poland. Chicago: Polish National Defense Committee. p. 88.
- ^ Freilich, Joseph (1918). Fundamental Conditions of the Economic Independence of Poland. Chicago: Polish National Defense Committee. p. 93.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Strzelce Krajeńskie. Studia i szkice historyczne, Strzelce Krajeńskie, 2016, p. 73
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- ^ "Śląska Biblioteka Cyfrowa – biblioteka cyfrowa regionu śląskiego – Wznowione powszechne taxae-stolae sporządzenie, Dla samowładnego Xięstwa Sląska, Podług ktorego tak Auszpurskiey Konfessyi iak Katoliccy Fararze, Kaznodzieie i Kuratusowie Zachowywać się powinni. Sub Dato z Berlina, d. 8. Augusti 1750". 225240 IV. Sbc.org.pl. Archived from the original on 2012-06-06. Retrieved 2013-11-20.
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- ^ Bernd Martin, p. 55
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- ISBN 978-3-570-55017-5
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-17312-4
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