Recreational drug use

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Recreational drug
)

The Smokers, a 1636 portrait by Adriaen Brouwer
Drinking Man and an Old Smoking Man, an 18th-century portrait by anonymous author
L'Absinthe, an 1876 portrait by Edgar Degas

Recreational drug use is the use of one or more psychoactive drugs to induce an altered state of consciousness, either for pleasure or for some other casual purpose or pastime.[1] When a psychoactive drug enters the user's body, it induces an intoxicating effect.[1] Recreational drugs are commonly divided into three categories: depressants (drugs that induce a feeling of relaxation and calmness), stimulants (drugs that induce a sense of energy and alertness), and hallucinogens (drugs that induce perceptual distortions such as hallucination).[2]

In popular practice, recreational drug use is generally tolerated as a social behaviour,

controlled drugs at least once.[7]

Common recreational drugs include

distilled spirits; nicotine, commonly found in tobacco, tobacco-based products, and electronic cigarettes; cannabis and hashish (with legality of possession varying inter/intra-nationally); and the controlled substances listed as controlled drugs in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961) and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances (1971) of the United Nations (UN).[8] Since the early 2000s, the European Union (EU) has developed several comprehensive and multidisciplinary strategies as part of its drug policy in order to prevent the diffusion of recreational drug use and abuse among the European population and raise public awareness on the adverse effects of drugs among all member states of the European Union, as well as conjoined efforts with European law enforcement agencies, such as Europol and EMCDDA, in order to counter organized crime and illegal drug trade in Europe.[8][9][10]

Reasons for use

Main articles: Entheogenic use of cannabis, Epigenetics of cocaine addiction, and Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism
Further information:
History of drinking, History of opium in China, and History of smoking
ancient India.[11]
A man smoking cannabis through a pipe in Kolkata, India

Many researchers have explored the

mutually exclusive.[13][14][15] Regardless of genetics, mental health, or traumatic experiences, social factors play a large role in the exposure to and availability of certain types of drugs and patterns of use.[13][14][16]

According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, some people go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use.[14] They tend to view using drugs as part of a general lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status and the challenging of social norms.[14] Plant states: "From the user's point of view there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure and status as they do with unhappiness or poverty. Becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience".[14]

Evolution

Main article: Evolutionary models of human drug use
Further information: Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals and Recreational drug use in animals

psychotropic plant substances that is millions of years old."[18]

Health risks

Main articles: Addiction, Substance abuse, and Substance use disorder
A 1914 photo of intoxicated men in a sobering-up room
Further information: Addiction vulnerability, Alcohol intoxication, and Drug overdose
Radar plot of 20 widely used recreational drugs by dependence likelihood and physical and social harms[19]

The severity of impact and type of risks that come with recreational drug use vary widely with the drug in question and the amount being used. There are many factors in the environment and within the user that interact with each drug differently.

consumption of multiple drugs most frequently occurs during adolescence and in middle school and secondary school settings.[22][23][24][25][26]

Some scientific studies in the early 21st century found that a low to moderate level of alcohol consumption, particularly of

LSD, and MDMA; however, these drugs have risks and side effects of their own.[32]

Drug harmfulness

Chart of drug dependence potential and relationship between use and lethal dose[33]
A chart showing relative drug harm of.
Chart of relative harmfulness of some psychoactive substances[32]

Drug harmfulness is defined as the degree to which a psychoactive drug has the potential to cause harm to the user and is measured in several ways, such as by addictiveness and the potential for physical harm. More objectively harmful drugs may be colloquially referred to as "hard drugs",[34] and less harmful drugs as "soft drugs".[35] The term "soft drug" is considered controversial by critics as it may imply the false belief that soft drugs cause lesser or insignificant harm.[35]

Responsible use

Main article: Responsible drug use

Responsible drug use advocates that users should not take drugs at the same time as activities such as driving, swimming, operating machinery, or other activities that are unsafe without a sober state. Responsible drug use is emphasized as a primary prevention technique in harm-reduction drug policies. Harm-reduction policies were popularized in the late 1980s, although they began in the 1970s counter-culture, through cartoons explaining responsible drug use and the consequences of irresponsible drug use to users.[36] Another issue is that the illegality of drugs causes social and economic consequences for users—the drugs may be "cut" with adulterants and the purity varies wildly, making overdoses more likely—and legalization of drug production and distribution could reduce these and other dangers of illegal drug use.[37]

Prevention

Main articles: Harm reduction, Preventive healthcare, Smoking ban, and Teetotalism
Further information: Drug education, Native American temperance activists, Temperance movement, and Tobacco harm reduction

In efforts to curtail recreational drug use, governments worldwide

War on Drugs" promoted by the United States, however, is now facing increasing criticism. Evidence is insufficient to tell if behavioral interventions help prevent recreational drug use in children.[38]

One in four adolescents has used an illegal drug, and one in ten of those adolescents who need addiction treatment get some type of care.[39] School-based programs are the most commonly used method for drug use education; however, the success rates of these intervention programs are highly dependent on the commitment of participants and are limited in general.[40]

Demographics

Main articles:
War on Drugs
Further information:
Prohibition of drugs, and Temperance movement
Smoking any tobacco product, %, males[41]
Smoking any tobacco product, %, females[41]
alcohol per capita consumption (15+), in liters of pure alcohol[42]

Australia

Main article: Illicit drug use in Australia
Further information:
Illegal drug trade in Australia

Alcohol is the most widely used recreational drug in Australia.[43] 86.2% of Australians aged 12 years and over have consumed alcohol at least once in their lifetime, compared to 34.8% of Australians aged 12 years and over who have used cannabis at least once in their lifetime.[43]

United States

Main articles: Federal drug policy of the United States, Illegal drug trade in the United States, and Prohibition in the United States
Further information: Cocaine in the United States, Crack epidemic in the United States, Opioid epidemic in the United States, and Temperance movement in the United States

From the mid-19th century to the 1930s, American physicians prescribed Cannabis sativa as a prescription drug for various medical conditions.[44] In the 1960s, the counterculture movement introduced the use of psychoactive drugs, including cannabis. Young adults and college students reported the recreational prevalence of cannabis, among other drugs, at 20-25% while the cultural mindset of using was open and curious.[45] In 1969, the FBI reported that between the years 1966 and 1968, the number of arrests for marijuana possession, which had been outlawed throughout the United States under Marijuana Tax Act of 1937, had increased by 98%.[46] Despite acknowledgement that drug use was greatly growing among America's youth during the late 1960s, surveys have suggested that only as much as 4% of the American population had ever smoked marijuana by 1969. By 1972, however, that number would increase to 12%. That number would then double by 1977.[47]

The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classified marijuana along with

War on Drugs" thus brought with it a shift from reliance on imported supplies to domestic cultivation, particularly in Hawaii and California. Beginning in 1982, the Drug Enforcement Administration turned increased attention to marijuana farms in the United States, and there was a shift to the indoor growing of plants specially developed for small size and high yield. After over a decade of decreasing use, marijuana smoking began an upward trend once more in the early 1990s, especially among teenagers, but by the end of the decade this upswing had leveled off well below former peaks of use.[48]

Society and culture

Main articles: Drug culture, History and culture of substituted amphetamines, History of alcoholic drinks, and History of smoking
Further information:
Caffeinated alcoholic beverages, such as Vodka Red Bull, are widespread and legal routes of administration for multiple drugs
.

Many movements and organizations are advocating for or against the

legalization of marijuana and cannabinoids for medical and/or recreational use.[44][50][51][52] Subcultures have emerged among users of recreational drugs,[53] as well as alternative lifestyles and social movements among those who abstain from them, such as teetotalism and "straight edge".[54]

Since the early 2000s,

criminal behaviors and recent alcohol abuse or dependence.[61]

The prevalence of recreational drugs in human societies is widely reflected in fiction, entertainment, and the arts, subject to prevailing laws and social conventions. For instance, in the

gang rivalries, and their related criminal underworld also play a big part in the Grand Theft Auto video game franchise.[66]

Common recreational drugs

The following substances are commonly used recreationally:[67]

Routes of administration

Insufflation of powdered drug
Injection of heroin

Drugs are often associated with a particular

marijuana can be swallowed like food or smoked, and cocaine
can be "sniffed" in the nostrils, injected, or, with various modifications, smoked.

Many drugs are taken through various routes. Intravenous route is the most efficient, but also one of the most dangerous. Nasal, rectal, inhalation and smoking are safer. The oral route is one of the safest and most comfortable, but of little bioavailability.

Types

Depressants

Further information: Depressant

Depressants are psychoactive drugs that temporarily diminish the function or activity of a specific part of the body or mind.

GABA or opioid activity, and inhibition of adrenergic, histamine or acetylcholine activity. Some are also capable of inducing feelings of euphoria. The most widely used depressant by far is alcohol (i.e. ethanol
).

Stimulants or "uppers", such as

amphetamines or cocaine
, which increase mental or physical function, have an opposite effect to depressants.

Depressants, in particular alcohol, can precipitate psychosis. A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that the rate of transition from opioid, alcohol and sedative induced psychosis to schizophrenia was 12%, 10% and 9% respectively.[93]

Antihistamines

Further information: Antihistamine

Antihistamines (or "histamine antagonists") inhibit the release or action of

chlorpheniramine, and orphenadrine, a characteristic euphoria at moderate doses.[citation needed
] High dosages taken to induce recreational drug effects may lead to overdoses. Antihistamines are also consumed in combination with alcohol, particularly by youth who find it hard to obtain alcohol. The combination of the two drugs can cause intoxication with lower alcohol doses.

Hallucinations and possibly delirium resembling the effects of

cough medicines
. They are sometimes used in combination with other substances such as alcohol. The most common unsupervised use of antihistamines in terms of volume and percentage of the total is perhaps in parallel to the medicinal use of some antihistamines to extend and intensify the effects of opioids and depressants. The most commonly used are hydroxyzine, mainly to extend a supply of other drugs, as in medical use, and the above-mentioned ethanolamine and alkylamine-class first-generation antihistamines, which are – once again as in the 1950s – the subject of medical research into their anti-depressant properties.

For all of the above reasons, the use of medicinal scopolamine for recreational uses is also observed.

Analgesics

Further information: Analgesic

Analgesics (also known as "painkillers") are used to relieve

prescription opiates and opioid
analgesics that may be used recreationally include Vicodin, Lortab, Norco (hydrocodone), Avinza, Kapanol (morphine), Opana, Paramorphan (oxymorphone), Dilaudid, Palladone (hydromorphone), and OxyContin (oxycodone).

Tranquilizers

Further information:
Tranquilizer

The following are examples of tranquilizers (

GABAergics
):

Stimulants

Further information: Stimulant
Cocaine is a commonly used stimulant.

Stimulants, also known as "psychostimulants",[94] induce euphoria with improvements in mental and physical function, such as enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion. Stimulants are also occasionally called "uppers". Depressants or "downers", which decrease mental or physical function, are in stark contrast to stimulants and are considered to be their functional opposites.

Stimulants enhance the activity of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Common effects may include increased alertness, awareness, wakefulness, endurance, productivity, and motivation, arousal, locomotion, heart rate, and blood pressure, and a diminished desire for food and sleep.

Use of stimulants may cause the body to significantly reduce its production of endogenous compounds that fulfill similar functions. Once the effect of the ingested stimulant has worn off the user may feel depressed, lethargic, confused, and dysphoric. This is colloquially termed a "crash" and may promote reuse of the stimulant.

Amphetamines are a significant cause of drug-induced psychosis. Importantly, a 2019 meta-analysis found that 22% of people with amphetamine-induced psychosis transition to a later diagnosis of schizophrenia.[93]

Examples of stimulants include:

Euphoriants

Further information:
Euphoriant
  • Alcohol: "Euphoria, the feeling of well-being, has been reported during the early (10–15 min) phase of alcohol consumption" (e.g., beer, wine or spirits)[95]
  • Cannabis: Tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive ingredient in this plant, can have sedative and euphoric properties.
  • Catnip: Catnip contains a sedative known as nepetalactone that activates opioid receptors. In cats it elicits sniffing, licking, chewing, head shaking, rolling, and rubbing which are indicators of pleasure. In humans, however, catnip does not act as a euphoriant.[96]
  • Stimulants: "Psychomotor stimulants produce locomotor activity (the subject becomes hyperactive), euphoria, (often expressed by excessive talking and garrulous behaviour), and anorexia. The amphetamines are the best known drugs in this category..."[97]
  • MDMA: The "euphoriant drugs such as MDMA ('ecstasy') and MDEA ('eve')" are popular among young adults.[98] MDMA "users experience short-term feelings of euphoria, rushes of energy and increased tactility"[99] as well as interpersonal connectedness.
  • Opium: This "drug derived from the unripe seed-pods of the opium poppy…produces drowsiness and euphoria and reduces pain. Morphine and codeine are opium derivatives."[100] Opioids have led to many deaths in the United States, particularly by causing respiratory depression.

Hallucinogens

Further information: Hallucinogen
See also: List of psychedelic drugs

Hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories:

opioids, hallucinogens do not merely amplify familiar states of mind but also induce experiences that differ from those of ordinary consciousness, often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as trance, meditation, conversion experiences, and dreams
.

Psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants have a long worldwide history of use within medicinal and religious traditions. They are used in

entheogens
.

Hallucinogen-induced psychosis occurs when psychosis persists despite no longer being intoxicated with the drug. It is estimated that 26% of people with hallucinogen-induced psychosis will transition to a diagnosis of schizophrenia. This percentage is less than the psychosis transition rate for cannabis (34%) but higher than that of amphetamines (22%).[93]

Starting in the mid-20th century, psychedelic drugs have been the object of extensive attention in the Western world. They have been and are being explored as potential therapeutic agents in treating

opioid addiction. Yet the most popular, and at the same time most stigmatized, use of psychedelics in Western culture has been associated with the search for direct religious experience, enhanced creativity, personal development, and "mind expansion". The use of psychedelic drugs was a major element of the 1960s counterculture
, where it became associated with various social movements and a general atmosphere of rebellion and strife between generations.

Inhalants

Further information: Inhalant

Inhalants are

angina drugs (alkyl nitrites
, more commonly known as "poppers").

The most serious inhalant abuse occurs among children and teens who "[...] live on the streets completely without family ties".

hypoxia (lack of oxygen), pneumonia, cardiac failure or arrest,[103]
or aspiration of vomit.

Examples include:

List of drugs which can be smoked

See also: Smoking and List of plants used for smoking

Plants:

Substances (also not necessarily psychoactive plants smoked within them):

List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals

See also: List of psychoactive plants

Minimally psychoactive plants which contain mainly caffeine and theobromine:

  • coffee
  • tea (caffeine in tea is sometimes called theine) – also contains theanine
  • guarana (caffeine in guarana is sometimes called guaranine)
  • yerba mate (caffeine in yerba mate is sometimes called mateine)
  • cocoa
  • kola

Most known psychoactive plants:

Solanaceae plants—contain atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine:

Cacti with mescaline
:

Other plants:

Fungi:

Psychoactive animals:

See also

Law and policy

Pharmacology

Tobacco-related topics

Drug-related literature

Other topics

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Further reading

External links

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