Red Brigades
Red Brigades | |
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Brigate Rosse | |
conspiracy, kidnapping | |
Battles and wars | Years of Lead |
The Red Brigades (
Formed in 1970, the Red Brigades sought to create a
Models for the BR included the Latin American
In the 1980s, the group was broken up by Italian investigators, with the aid of several leaders under arrest who turned
Throughout their existence, the BR were generally opposed by other
1970: First BR generation
The Red Brigades were formed in August 1970.
The formation of the Red Brigades took place in the context of social struggles in the late 1960s. Workers' strikes shook factories,
The fear of a far-right power grab in Italy, like the
While the
The BR's kidnapping were different from those in Latin American or European groups in that, apart from two major exceptions, they had been pursued not for immediate practical possibilities but for symbolic ritualism, where the targeted symbol represented an action towards the symbolized entity.[19] Initially, the BR focused on managerial staff and right-wing trade unionists from the country's largest firms, such as Alfa Romeo, Fiat, and Sit-Siemens.[19] By 1974, with the decrease of working-class mobilization, they shifted from the factory to the state and its institutions; in 1976, they described in particular the magistrature as "the weakest link in the chain of power".[19] Subsequently, they began targeting politicians. During the 1970s, the BR had carried out eight symbolic kidnappings. They all followed a similar path in which the victim was subjected to a summary trial and held in captivity for a period between 20 minutes to 55 days, and then released unharmed. Aldo Moro's, the ninth of those symbolic kidnappings, was the only one to result in murder.[19]
During this time, the BR's activities were denounced by
Frequent allegations of links between the BR and the intelligence services of
1974 arrest of BR founders
In September 1974, Curcio and Franceschini were arrested by General
Expansion and radicalization
This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2018) |
After 1974, the Red Brigades expanded into
In 1975, the
Kidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro
In 1978, the Second BR, headed by
After holding Moro for 54 days, the BR realized that the government would not negotiate. Fearful of being discovered, they decided to kill their prisoner. They placed him in a car and told him to cover himself with a blanket. Moretti then shot him eleven times in the chest. Moro's body was left in the trunk of a car in Via Caetani, a site midway between the DC and PCI headquarters, as a last symbolic challenge to the police, who were keeping the entire nation, and Rome in particular, under strict surveillance. Moretti wrote in Brigate Rosse: una storia italiana that the murder of Moro was the last expression of
Moro's assassination caused a strong reaction against the BR by the Italian law enforcement and security forces. The murder of a popular political figure also drew condemnation from other Italian left-wing militant formations and even the imprisoned ex-leaders of the group. The BR suffered a loss of support. Another crucial turning point was the 1979 murder of Guido Rossa, a member of the PCI and a trade union organizer. Rossa had observed the distribution of BR propaganda and had reported those involved to the police. He was shot and killed by the BR; this attack against a popular trade union organiser proved disastrous, totally alienating the factory worker base to which BR propaganda was primarily directed.[5] In the words of Ezio Mauro of La Repubblica, the events were "Italy's 11th of September". It was the apogee of Italy's Years of Lead.[4]
Italian police made a large number of arrests in 1980, when 12,000 far-left militants were detained while 300 fled to France and 200 to South America; a total of 600 people left Italy.
On 7 April 1979, the
On 23 January 1983, an Italian court sentenced 32 members of the BR to life imprisonment for their role in the kidnapping and murder of Moro, among other crimes.[31] Many elements and facts have never been fully cleared up,[32] despite a series of trials,[33] and this led to a number of other alternative theories about the events to become popularized.[4][34]
BR in the 1980s
Much of the BR was dismantled by the security services in the 1980s.
Kidnapping of Brigadier General Dozier
On 17 December 1981, four members of the BR, posing as plumbers, invaded the
Mulinaris' 1983 arrest
After the Abbé Pierre's death in January 2007, Italian magistrate Carlo Mastelloni recalled in the Corriere della Sera that the Abbé had "spontaneously testified" in the 1980s in support of a group of Italian activists who had fled to Paris and were involved with the Hyperion language school, directed by Vanni Mulinaris. Simone de Beauvoir had also written a letter to Mastelloni, which has been kept in juridical archives.[38] Some of those associated with the Hyperion School, which included Corrado Simioni, Vanni Mulinaris, and Duccio Berio,[39] were accused by the Italian authorities of being the "masterminds" of the BR, although they were all cleared afterwards.
After Mulinaris travelled to
Red Brigades-PCC and Red Brigades-UCC 1981 split
By 1981, the BR had split into two factions: the majority faction of the Communist Combatant Party (Red Brigades-PCC, led by
In the 1980s, the arrests rate increased in Italy, including that of Senzani in 1982 and of Balzerani in 1985. In February 1986, the Red Brigades-PCC killed the ex-mayor of Florence
Flight to France
In 1985 some Italian members living in France returned to Italy. The same year, French President
While leftists had mostly fled to France, many
Late 1990s resurgence and murders
A new group, with few links, if any, with the old BR, appeared in the late 1990s. The Red Brigades-PCC in 1999 murdered Massimo D'Antona , an advisor to the cabinet of Prime Minister Massimo D'Alema.[50] On 19 March 2002, the same gun was used to kill professor Marco Biagi, an economic advisor to Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi.[50] The Red Brigades-PCC again claimed responsibility. On 3 March 2003, two followers, Mario Galesi and Nadia Desdemona Lioce, started a firefight with a police patrol on a train at Castiglion Fiorentino station, near Arezzo. Galesi and Emanuele Petri (one of the policemen) were killed, Lioce was arrested.
On 23 October 2003, Italian police arrested six members of the Red Brigades in early-dawn raids in Florence, Sardinia, Rome and Pisa in connection with the murder of Massimo D'Antona. On 1 June 2005, four members of the Red Brigades-PCC were condemned to life-sentence in Bologna for the murder of Marco Biagi: Nadia Lioce, Roberto Morandi, Marco Mezzasalma and Diana Blefari Melazzi.[citation needed]
Several figures from the 1970s, including philosopher Antonio Negri who was wrongly accused of being the mastermind of the BR, have called for a new analysis of the events which happened during the Years of Lead in Italy. On the other hand, BR founder Alberto Franceschini declared after his release from an 18-year prison term that the BR "continue to exist because we never proceeded to their funeral", calling for truth from every involved party in order to be able to turn the page.[51]
Later developments
In October 2007, a former BR commander was arrested after committing a bank robbery while out of prison on good conduct terms. On 1 October 2007, Cristoforo Piancone, who is serving a life sentence for six murders, managed to steal €170,000 from the bank Monte dei Paschi di Siena with an accomplice.[52]
Statistics
According to Clarence A. Martin, the BR were credited with 14,000 acts of violence in the first ten years of the group's existence.[53] According to statistics by Italy's Ministry of Interior, a total of 75 people are thought to have been murdered by the BR. A majority of the murders were politically motivated, though a number of assassinations of random police and Carabinieri officers took place, as well as a number of murders occurring during criminal ventures such as bank robberies and kidnappings.
Foreign support
Romanian defector
Russian defector Vasili Mitrokhin claimed that, aware of the involvement and fearing retaliation due to their own involvement with the KGB, the Italian Communist Party lodged several complaints with the Soviet ambassador in Rome regarding Czechoslovak support of the Red Brigades, but the Soviets were supposedly either unwilling or unable to stop the StB. This was one of several contributing factors in ending the alleged covert relationship that the Italian Communist Party had with the KGB, culminating with a total break in 1979.[58]
According to Pacepa, support for the Red Brigades was a major part of the operations of
Italian journalist
Popular culture
Joe Strummer of The Clash frequently wore a Red Brigade shirt in the early punk rock period. He also wore the shirt in the film Rude Boy.
See also
References
- ^ Buckingham, Larry Allen (1 July 1982). "The Red Brigades: A Description of a Terrorist Organization".
- JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctt7zft3.
- ^ a b "Red Brigades". Mapping Militant Organizations. Stanford University. June 2018. Archived from the original on 13 August 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
- ^ a b c Iovene, Franck (15 March 2018). "Remembering Aldo Moro, the former prime minister killed by terrorists during Italy's 'Years of Lead'". The Local. Archived from the original on 7 August 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Broder, David (9 May 2018). "Historically Compromised". Jacobin. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
- ^ Westcott, Kathryn (6 January 2004). "Italy's history of terror". BBC.
- ^ "Red Brigades". Britannica. Retrieved 9 August 2020.
- ^ "Red Brigades". Center for International Security and Cooperation. Stanford University. Retrieved 9 August 2020.
- ISBN 0-14-012496-9p. 361–362
- ^ Wesel, Uwe (22 April 2006). "Con le bombe e le pistole, di Uwe Wesel". Mirumir (in Italian). Archived from the original on 18 April 2015.
- ^ a b Canario, Massimo (9 May 2022). "The kidnapping and killing of Aldo Moro". Europeana.eu. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
- ^ Castro, Beppe (14 September 2022). "The Kidnapping And Murder Of Aldo Moro". Saturdays In Rome. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
The Red Brigades believed that the success of the kidnapping would stop the Communists' rise to become integrated into Italian state institutions and as such being part of the machine they viewed as corrupt and oppressive. Without the [PCI] being part of the government, the Red Brigades could continue with their revolutionary war against capitalism. In the first communication by the Red Brigades, they claimed that the DC: '... had been suppressing the Italian people for years'.
- ^ Alexander p. 194
- ^ Paul Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics 1943–1988, (London: Penguin, 1990) p.361.
- ^ a b c Bonelli, Laurent (1 October 2011). "The secret lives of terrorists". Diplo.
- ^ A Jamieson. Identity and morality in the Italian Red Brigades. Terrorism and Political Violence, 1990, p. 508-15
- ^ R. Lumley, States of Emergency: Cultures of Revolt in Italy from 1968 to 1978, (London: Verso, 1990) p.282.
- ^ See Giovanni Fasanella and Alberto Franceschini (with an afterword by judge Rosario Priore, who investigated Aldo Moro's death), Che cosa sono le BR [1] ("Brigades Rouges. L'Histoire secrète des Red Brigades racontée par leur fondateur, Alberto Franceschini. Entretien avec Giovanni Fasanella". Editions Panama, 2005 a review by Le Monde.[permanent dead link]
- ^ S2CID 145234617.
- ^ Brigate Rosse and Moro Kidnappig: secrets and lies (in English)
- ^ "Fausto Cuocolo, il giurista che girava con due lacci emostatici". ilGiornale.it (in Italian). 29 May 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
- ^ "L'appello di Paolo VI per il rilascio di Moro". Rai Storia (in Italian). Retrieved 16 December 2015.
- ^ "Caso Moro, monsignor Mennini: 'Mai stato nella prigione delle Br. Paolo VI mise da parte 10 miliardi per pagare il riscatto'". la Repubblica (in Italian). 9 March 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
- ISBN 9781857435795.
- University of Paris X: Nanterre, 2004
- ISBN 978-0-312-03593-8.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - . Retrieved 20 March 2024.
- ^ "Revised Bibliography of the Works of Gilles Deleuze" (PDF) (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 April 2014. Retrieved 5 June 2014.
- Mille et une nuits, 2003 (transl. of Lettera aperta ai giudici di Negri published in La Repubblica on 10 May 1979); Ce livre est littéralement une preuve d'innocence, text n°21 (op.cit.), originally published in Le Matin de Parison 13 December 1979
- ^ "Commissione d'inchiesta su terrorismo e stragi".
- ^ "Moro's killers among 32 jailed for life in Italy". The New York Times. 25 January 1983. p. 3. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
- ^ Sagerson, Andrew (9 May 2023). "The kidnapping and assassination of Aldo Moro". Wanted in Rome. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
- S2CID 144245156.
- ^ Longo, Luca (30 April 2018). "Tutto quel che non torna del rapimento di Aldo Moro". Linkiesta.it (in Italian). Retrieved 7 August 2023.
- Dutton, 1990.
- ^ Ugo Milani
- ^ Dozier, General James/Red Brigade Kidnapping Incident. Reagan.utexas.edu. Retrieved on 28 August 2011.
- ^ «Quel giorno in Tribunale con lui difese i terroristi rossi e l' Hyperion», Corriere della Sera, 23 January 2007 (in Italian)
- ^ Abbé Pierre, il frate ribelle che scelse gli emarginati, Corriere della Sera, 23 January 2007 (in Italian)
- ^ L'abbé Pierre, fondateur d'Emmaüs, est mort, necrology in Le Monde of the Abbé Pierre, 22 January 2007 (in French)
- ^ CAMT. Répertoire papiers Abbé Pierre/Emmaus, on the website of the French Archives Nationales (National Archives) (in French)
- ^ D'inattendues amitiés brigadistes, Libération, 24 January 2007 (in French)
- ^ AFP news cable: "ROME, 23 January 2007 (AFP) – L'Abbé Pierre et les Brigades rouges italiennes : un épisode méconnu" (23 January 2007), published on La Croix's website here [2] (in French) Archived 26 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Paolo Perschichetti, "De l'usage sélectif du passé", on Parole donnée[usurped] (in French)
- ^ insorgenze (13 March 2012). "Dallo Stato etico allo Stato emotivo: Virginio Rognoni «Le torture? L'emotività era forte»". Insorgenze (in Italian).
- TelamArgentine news agency, 6 January 2007 (in Spanish)
- ^ "Associazione Italiana Vittime del Terrorismo AIVITER – Sito ufficiale". Vittimeterrorismo.it. Retrieved 5 June 2014.
- ^ a b Balmer, Crispian; Rose, Michel (28 April 2021). "France arrests 7 Italian leftist militants it harboured for decades". Reuters. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
- ^ "France arrests ex-members of Italy extremist group Red Brigades". BBC News. 28 April 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
- ^ a b John Lloyd (1 April 2002). "Enter the Red Brigades, the new moral opposition". New Statesman. Retrieved 12 September 2013.
- ^ Giovanni Fasanella and Alberto Franceschini, Che cosa sono le BR (See Paris, capitale des « années de plomb », review of the book in Le Monde, 30 November 2005 (in French))
- ^ "Released Red Brigader in Heist". ANSA. 2 October 2007.[dead link]
- ^ Martin, Clarence Augustus; Gus Martin (2003). Understanding Terrorism. Sage Publications.
- ^ a b c Pacepa, Lt Ion Mihai (1990). Red Horizons. Regnery Publishing.
- ^ Terrorist Group Profiles. Dudley Knox Library, Naval Postgraduate School. 2005.
- ^ Hofmann, Paul (1991). That Fine Italian Hand. Owl Books.
- ^ Luntz, James M; Brenda J Luntz (2004). Global Terrorism. Routledge.
- ISBN 9780465003105.
- ^ "Loretta Napoleoni: The intricate economics of terrorism". Ted.com. Retrieved 5 June 2014.
Bibliography
- Giovanni Fasanella and Alberto Franceschini (with a postface from judge Rosario Priore, who investigated on Aldo Moro's death), Che cosa sono le BR. I Miserabili ("Brigades Rouges. L'Histoire secrète des Red Brigades racontée par leur fondateur, Alberto Franceschini. Entretien avec Giovanni Fasanella". Editions Panama, 2005 a review by[permanent dead link] Le Monde and another review by L'Humanité
- A Giovanni Fasanella's bibliography
- Terrorist Group Profiles, Dudley Knox Library, Naval Postgraduate School.
- Antonio Cerella, Il ritorno della violenza – Le BR dal ventennio rosso al XXI secolo, Roma: Il Filo, 2007.
- Amedeo Benedetti, Il linguaggio delle nuove Brigate Rosse, Genova: Erga, 2002.
- Yonah Alexander and Dennis A. Pluchinsky. Europe's Red Terrorists: The fighting Communist Organizations, Routledge, October 1992.
- Indro Montanelli and Mario Cervi, L'Italia degli anni di piombo, Milan: Rizzoli, 1991; L'Italia degli anni di fango, Milan: Rizzoli, 1993.
External links
- Chris Aronson Beck, Reggie Emilia, Lee Morris, and Ollie Patterson. Strike One to Educate One Hundred: The Rise of the Red Brigades in Italy in the 1960s and 1970s Archived 4 December 2004 at the Wayback Machine. Seeds Beneath the Snow, 1986. A sympathetic appraisal of the Red Brigades.