Reign of Cleopatra
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Cleopatra VII |
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The reign of Cleopatra VII of the
Cleopatra initially acceded to the throne alongside her younger brother
Cleopatra visited Rome as a
Accession to the thrones
Cleopatra perhaps wedded her brother Ptolemy XIII,
In 50 BC,
Although Cleopatra had rejected her 11-year-old brother as a joint ruler in 51 BC, Ptolemy XIII still retained strong allies, including Potheinos, his tutor and administrator of his properties.
Assassination of Pompey
In Greece, Caesar and Pompey's forces engaged each other at the decisive
Relationship with Julius Caesar
Caesar's request for partial repayment of the 17.5 million drachmas owed to Rome (to pay for immediate military expenditures) was met with a response by Potheinos, who replied that it would be made later if Caesar would leave Alexandria, but this offer was rejected.[73][74][75] Ptolemy XIII arrived at Alexandria at the head of his army, in clear defiance of Caesar's demand that he disband and leave his army before his arrival.[73][75] Cleopatra initially sent emissaries to Caesar, but upon allegedly hearing that Caesar was inclined to having affairs with royal women, she came to Alexandria to see him personally.[73][74][75] The historian Cassius Dio records that she simply did so without informing her brother, dressing in an attractive manner and charming Caesar with her wit and linguistic skills.[73][76][77] Plutarch provides an entirely different and perhaps mythical account that alleges she was bound inside a bed sack to be smuggled into the palace to meet Caesar.[73][72][78]
When Ptolemy XIII realized that his sister was in the palace consorting directly with Caesar instead of at Pelousion, he attempted to rouse the populace of Alexandria into a riot.[79][80] Caesar promptly detained him and used his oratorical skills to calm the frenzied crowd gathered outside the palace.[81][82][83] He then brought the siblings before the assembly of Alexandria and revealed the written will of Ptolemy XII – previously possessed by Pompey – naming Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs.[84][82][74] Caesar then attempted to arrange for the other two siblings, Arsinoe IV and Ptolemy XIV, to rule together over Cyprus,[79][85] thus removing potential rival claimants to the Egyptian throne. This would also appease the Ptolemaic subjects still bitter over the loss of Cyprus to the Romans in 58 BC.[86][82][87]
Potheinos judged that this agreement actually favored Cleopatra over Ptolemy XIII and that the latter's army of 20,000, including the Gabiniani, could most likely defeat Caesar's army of 4,000 unsupported troops. He decided to have Achillas lead their forces to Alexandria to attack both Caesar and Cleopatra.
Sometime between January and March 47 BC, Caesar's reinforcements arrived.
Caesar's term as consul had expired at the end of 48 BC.
Before returning to Rome to attend to urgent political matters, Caesar is alleged to have joined Cleopatra for a cruise of the Nile and sightseeing of monuments, although this may be a romantic tale reflecting later well-to-do Roman proclivities and not a real historic event.
Caesar departed from Egypt around April 47 BC.[121] The reason for his departure was apparently that Pharnaces II of Pontus, son of Mithridates the Great, was stirring up trouble for Rome in Anatolia and needed to be confronted. It is possible, however, that Caesar, who was married to the prominent Roman woman Calpurnia, wanted to avoid being seen together with Cleopatra when she had their son.[121][114] He left three legions in Egypt, later increased to four, under the command of the freedman Rufio, to secure Cleopatra's tenuous position, but also perhaps to keep her activities in check.[121][122][123]
Cleopatra's alleged child with Caesar was born 23 June 47 BC, as preserved on a stele at the
Cleopatra and her nominal joint ruler Ptolemy XIV visited Rome sometime around autumn of 46 BC, possibly with Caesarion.
Fletcher asserts that it is unclear if Cleopatra consistently stayed in Rome until 44 BC or briefly returned to Egypt after Caesar traveled to
Caesar was assassinated on the
Cleopatra in the Liberators' civil war
Octavian, Mark Antony, and
By the end of 42 BC, Octavian gained control over much of the western half of the Roman Republic and Antony the eastern half, with Lepidus largely marginalized.[170] Antony moved his headquarters from Athens to Tarsos in Anatolia by the summer of 41 BC.[170][171] He summoned Cleopatra to Tarsos in several letters, invitations she initially rebuffed until he sent his envoy Quintus Dellius to Alexandria, convincing her to come.[172][173] The meeting would allow Cleopatra to clear up the misconception that she seemed to support Cassius during the civil war, and would address pressing issues about territorial exchanges in the Levant. Mark Antony also undoubtedly desired to form a personal, romantic relationship with the queen.[174][173]
Cleopatra sailed up the
Relationship with Mark Antony
Cleopatra invited Antony to visit Egypt before departing from Tarsos, which led Antony to visit Alexandria by November 41 BC.
Of all the
By the spring of 40 BC, troubles in Syria forced Mark Antony to end his vacation in Egypt with Cleopatra.
Events of the
In December 40 BC, Cleopatra received
Relations between Mark Antony and Cleopatra perhaps soured when he not only married Octavia in 40 BC,[210] but also moved his headquarters to Athens and sired her two children, Antonia the Elder in 39 BC and Antonia Minor in 36 BC.[211] However, Cleopatra's position in Egypt was secure.[182] Her rival Herod was occupied with civil war in Judea that required heavy Roman military assistance, but received none from Cleopatra.[211] Since the triumviral authority of Mark Antony and Octavian had expired on 1 January 37 BC, Octavia arranged for a meeting at Tarentum, where the triumvirate was officially extended to 33 BC.[212] With two legions granted by Octavian and a thousand soldiers lent by Octavia, Mark Antony traveled to Antioch, where he made preparations for war against the Parthians.[213]
Antony summoned Cleopatra to Antioch to discuss pressing issues such as Herod's kingdom and financial support for his Parthian campaign.
In this arrangement, Cleopatra gained significant
Antony's rival Octavian exploited the enlargement of the Ptolemaic realm by relinquishing directly controlled Roman territory. Octavian tapped into public sentiment in Rome against the empowerment of a foreign queen at the expense of their Republic.
In 36 BC, Cleopatra accompanied Antony to the
Donations of Alexandria
Antony prepared for another Parthian expedition in 35 BC, this time aimed at their ally
Antony sent Quintus Dellius as his envoy to Artavasdes II of Armenia in 34 BC to negotiate a potential
In an event held at the
In late 34 BC, following the Donations, Antony and Octavian engaged in a heated war of propaganda that would last for years.[259][256] Antony argued that his rival had illegally deposed Lepidus from their triumvirate and barred him from raising troops in Italy. Octavian accused Antony of unlawfully detaining the king of Armenia, marrying Cleopatra despite still being married to his sister Octavia, and wrongfully claiming Caesarion as the heir of Caesar instead of Octavian.[259][256] The litany of accusations and gossip associated with this propaganda war have shaped popular perceptions of Cleopatra from Augustan-period literature to various media in modern times.[260][261]
Aside from casual criticisms of Cleopatra's extravagant lifestyle and corruption of Antony with her opulence, she was alleged by various Roman authors to have resorted to
A
Battle of Actium
In a speech to the Roman Senate on the first day of his consulship on 1 January 33 BC,[273] Octavian accused Antony of attempting to subvert Roman freedoms and authority as a slave to Cleopatra, who he said was given lands that rightfully belonged to the Romans.[274] Before Antony and Octavian's joint imperium expired on 31 December 33 BC, Antony declared Caesarion as the true heir of Julius Caesar in an attempt to undermine Octavian.[274] On 1 January 32 BC, the Antonian loyalists Gaius Sosius and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus were elected as consuls.[272] On 1 February 32 BC, Sosius gave a fiery speech condemning Octavian,[257] now a private citizen without public office, introducing pieces of legislation against him.[272][275] During the next senatorial session, Octavian entered the Senate house with armed guards and levied his own accusations against the consuls.[272][276] Intimidated by this act, the consuls and over two-hundred senators still in support of Antony fled Rome the next day and joined his side. Antony established his own counter Roman Senate.[272][276][277] Although he held military office and his reputation was still largely intact, Antony was still fundamentally reliant on Cleopatra for military support.[272] The couple traveled together to Ephesus in 32 BC, where Cleopatra provided him with 200 of the 800 total naval ships he was able to acquire.[272]
Domitius Ahenobarbus, wary of having Octavian's propaganda confirmed to the public, attempted to persuade Antony to have Cleopatra excluded entirely from the military efforts launched against Octavian.[278][279] Publius Canidius Crassus made the counterargument that Cleopatra was funding the war effort and, as a long-reigning monarch, was by no means inferior to the male allied kings Antony had summoned for the campaign.[278][279] Cleopatra refused Antony's requests that she return to Egypt, judging that by blocking Octavian in Greece, she could defend Egypt more easily from him.[278][279] Cleopatra's insistence that she be involved in the battle for Greece led to defections of prominent Romans such as Domitius Ahenobarbus and Lucius Munatius Plancus.[278][276]
During the spring of 32 BC, Antony and Cleopatra traveled to
Antony and Cleopatra had greater numbers of troops (i.e. 100,000 men) and ships (i.e. 800 vessels) than Octavian, who had some 200 ships and 80,000 men.
Cleopatra and Antony had the support of various allied kings. Conflict between Cleopatra and Herod had previously erupted and an earthquake in Judea provided an excuse for him and his forces not to be present at Actium in support of the couple.
On 2 September 31 BC,
Downfall and death
While Octavian occupied Athens, Antony and Cleopatra landed at
Cleopatra perhaps started to view Antony as a liability by the late summer of 31 BC, when she prepared to leave Egypt to her son Caesarion.[313] As an object of Roman hostility, Cleopatra would relinquish her throne and remove herself from the equation by taking her fleet from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea and then setting sail to a foreign port, perhaps in India, where she could spend time recuperating.[313][310] However, these plans were ultimately abandoned when Malichus I of Nabataea, as advised by Octavian's governor of Syria Quintus Didius, managed to burn Cleopatra's fleet in revenge for his losses in a war with Herod largely initiated by Cleopatra.[313][310] Cleopatra had no option but to stay in Egypt and negotiate with Octavian.[313] Although most likely pro-Octavian propaganda, it was reported at this time that Cleopatra had begun testing the strengths of various poisons on prisoners and even her own servants.[314]
Cleopatra had Caesarion enter into the ranks of the
After lengthy negotiations that ultimately produced no results, Octavian set out to invade Egypt in the spring of 30 BC.
Octavian entered Alexandria and gave a speech of reconciliation at the gymnasium before settling in the palace and seizing Cleopatra's three youngest children.
Cleopatra, though long desiring to preserve her kingdom, decided in her last moments to send Caesarion away to Upper Egypt perhaps with plans to flee to
Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra
Cleopatra's personal rule of Egypt followed
Cleopatra was nominally the
Two legally-defined classes divided Ptolemaic Egyptian society: Greeks and Egyptians. Greeks inhabited the city-states of
Although Egyptian priests were often wealthy landowners who rivaled the wealth of the Ptolemaic pharaohs, the Ptolemaic monarchs technically owned all Egyptian lands as part of
Both Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra found it necessary to
In addition to various ancient
Although established earlier, Cleopatra resumed construction of the
See also
References
Notes
- ^ a b Theodore Cressy Skeat, in Skeat 1953, pp. 98–100, uses historical data to calculate the death of Cleopatra as having occurred on 12 August 30 BC. Burstein 2004, p. 31 and Tyldesley 2006, p. 206 provide the same date as Skeat, while Dodson & Hilton 2004, p. 277 tepidly support this, saying it occurred circa that date. Those in favor of arguing her death occurred on 10 August 30 BC include Roller 2010, pp. 147–148, Fletcher 2008, p. 3, and Anderson 2003, p. 56.
- ^ Hellenistic Age' (which we ourselves often regard as coming to an end in about her time) still be said to exist at all, could any Greek age, now that the Romanswere the dominant power? This was a question never far from Cleopatra's mind. But it is quite certain that she considered the Greek epoch to be by no means finished, and intended to do everything in her power to ensure its perpetuation."
- ^ It is disputed whether Cleopatra was deliberately depicted as a male or whether a stele made under her father with his portrait was later inscribed with an inscription for Cleopatra. On this and other uncertainties regarding this stele, see Pfeiffer (2015, pp. 177–181).
- ^ a b Fletcher 2008, pp. 85–86 states that the partial solar eclipse of 7 March 51 BC marked the death of Ptolemy XII Auletes and accession of Cleopatra to the throne, although she apparently suppressed the news of his death, alerting the Roman Senate to this fact months later in a message they received on 30 June 51 BC.
However, Grant 1972, p. 30 argues that the Senate was informed of his death on 1 August 51 BC. Michael Grant indicates that Ptolemy XII could have been alive as late as May, while an ancient Egyptian source affirms he was still ruling with Cleopatra by 15 July 51 BC, although by this point Cleopatra most likely "hushed up her father's death" so that she could consolidate her control of Egypt. - Macedon...killed Arsinoë's small children in front of her. Now queen without a kingdom, Arsinoë fled to Egypt, where she was welcomed by her full brother Ptolemy II. Not content, however, to spend the rest of her life as a guest at the Ptolemaic court, she had Ptolemy II's wife exiled to Upper Egypt and married him herself around 275 B.C. Though such an incestuous marriage was considered scandalous by the Greeks, it was allowed by Egyptian custom. For that reason the marriage split public opinion into two factions. The loyal side celebrated the couple as a return of the divine marriage of Zeus and Hera, whereas the other side did not refrain from profuse and obscene criticism. One of the most sarcastic commentators, a poet with a very sharp pen, had to flee Alexandria. The unfortunate poet was caught off the shore of Crete by the Ptolemaic navy, put in an iron basket, and drowned. This and similar actions seemingly slowed down vicious criticism."
- ^ For the Siege of Alexandria (47 BC), Burstein 2004, p. 19 states that Julius Caesar's reinforcements came in January, but Roller 2010, p. 63 says that his reinforcements came in March.
- ^ Roller 2010, pp. 64–65 states that at this point (47 BC) Ptolemy XIV was 12 years old, while Burstein 2004, p. 19 argues that he was still only 10 years of age.
- ^ Roller 2010, p. 70 writes the following about Julius Caesar and his parentage of Caesarion: "The matter of parentage became so tangled in the propaganda war between Antonius and Octavian in the late 30s B.C. – it was essential for one side to prove and the other to reject Caesar's role – that it is impossible today to determine Caesar's actual response. The extant information is almost contradictory: it was said that Caesar denied parentage in his will but acknowledged it privately and allowed use of the name Caesarion. Caesar's associate C. Oppius even wrote a pamphlet proving that Caesarion was not Caesar's child, and C. Helvius Cinna – the poet who was killed by rioters after Antonius's funeral oration – was prepared in 44 BC to introduce legislation to allow Caesar to marry as many wives as he wished for the purpose of having children. Although much of this talk was generated after Caesar's death, it seems that he himself wished to be as quiet as possible about the child but had to contend with Cleopatra's repeated assertions."
- Egyptian motifswhich has been identified as Cleopatra."
- Octavia Minor provided Mark Antony with 1,200 troops, not 2,000 as given in Roller 2010, pp. 97–98 and Burstein 2004, pp. 27–28
- ^ Ferroukhi (2001a, p. 219) provide a detailed discussion about this bust and its ambiguities, noting that it could represent Cleopatra, but that it is more likely her daughter Cleopatra Selene II. Kleiner (2005, pp. 155–156) argues in favor of it depicting Cleopatra rather than her daughter, while Varner (2004, p. 20) only mentions Cleopatra as a possible likeness. Roller (2003, p. 139) points out that it could be either Cleopatra or Cleopatra Selene II, while arguing the same ambiguity applies to the other sculpted head from Cherchel featuring a veil. In regards to the latter head, Ferroukhi (2001b, p. 242) indicates it as a possible portrait of Cleopatra, not Cleoptra Selene II, from the early 1st century AD while also arguing that its masculine features, earrings, and apparent toga (the veil being a component of it) could likely mean it was intended to depict a Numidian nobleman. Fletcher (2008, image plates between pp. 246–247) disagrees about the veiled head, arguing that it was commissioned by Cleopatra Selene II at Iol (Caesarea Mauretaniae) and was meant to depict her mother, Cleopatra.
- ^ Walker (2001, p. 312) writes the following about the raised relief on the gilded silver dish: "Conspicuously mounted on the cornucopia is a gilded crescent moon set on a pine cone. Around it are piled pomegranates and bunches of grapes. Engraved on the horn are images of Helios (the sun), in the form of a youth dressed in a short cloak, with the hairstyle of Alexander the Great, the head surrounded by rays... The symbols on the cornucopia can indeed be read as references to the Ptolemaic royal house and specifically to Cleopatra Selene, represented in the crescent moon, and to her twin brother, Alexander Helios, whose eventual fate after the conquest of Egypt is unknown. The viper seems to be linked with the pantheress and the intervening symbols of fecundity rather than the suicide of Cleopatra. The elephant scalp could refer to Cleopatra Selene's status as ruler, with Juba II, of Mauretania. The visual correspondence with the veiled head from Cherchel encourages this identification, and many of the symbols used on the dish also appear on the coinage of Juba II."
- ^ Roller 2010, p. 100 says that it is unclear if they were ever truly married, while Burstein 2004, p. 29 says that the marriage publicly sealed Antony's alliance with Cleopatra, in defiance of Octavian now that he was divorced from Octavia.
- ^ Stanley M. Burstein, in Burstein 2004, p. 33 provides the name Quintus Cascellius as the recipient of the tax exemption, not the Publius Canidius Crassus provided by Duane W. Roller in Roller 2010, p. 134.
- ^ For the translated accounts of both Plutarch and Cassius Dio, Jones 2006, pp. 194–195 writes that the implement used to puncture Cleopatra's skin was a hairpin.
- Octavian)," citing, for instance, the Stromata by Clement of Alexandria (Roller 2010, pp. 149, 214, footnote 103)., p. 187, wrote in vague terms that "Octavian had Caesarion killed later, after Cleopatra's death."
Plutarch, translated by Jones 2006
Citations
- ^ a b Raia & Sebesta (2017).
- ^ Lippold (1936), pp. 169–171.
- ^ Curtius (1933), pp. 184 ff. Abb. 3 Taf. 25—27..
- ^ Strudwick (2013), pp. 96–97.
- ^ Gómez (2019), p. 26.
- ^ Ashton (2001b), p. 165.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 26–27.
- ^ Burstein (2004), p. 14.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 80, 85.
- ^ Roller (2010), p. 27.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xx, 14.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 84–85.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), pp. 53, 56.
- ^ a b Fletcher (2008), pp. 85–86.
- ^ a b Grant (1972), p. 30.
- ^ a b c Hölbl (2001), p. 231.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xx, 15–16.
- ^ Preston (2009), p. 26.
- ^ Tyldesley (2008), p. 42.
- ^ Burstein (2004), p. xx.
- ^ Tyldesley (2008), p. 43.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 114.
- ^ Preston (2009), p. 28.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 53.
- ^ a b Burstein (2004), p. 16.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 91–92.
- ^ Tyldesley (2008), p. 40.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 24–26, 53–54.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 13–14, 16–17.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 92.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 199–200.
- ^ Ashton (2001a), p. 217.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), pp. 54–56.
- ^ Worth (2006), p. 50.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 56.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), pp. 56–57.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 16–17.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 73, 92–93.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 92–93.
- ^ a b Tyldesley (2008), p. 237.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 57.
- ^ a b c Burstein (2004), pp. xx, 17.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 58.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 94–95.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 95.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 58–59.
- ^ Burstein (2004), p. 17.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 95–96.
- ^ Roller (2010), p. 59.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 96.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), pp. 59–60.
- ^ a b Bringmann (2007), p. 259.
- ^ a b Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 17.
- ^ a b c Roller (2010), p. 60.
- ^ Jones (2006), pp. 39–41, 53.
- ^ a b Fletcher (2008), p. 98.
- ^ Jones (2006), pp. 39–43, 53.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 17–18.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), pp. 60–61.
- ^ Bringmann (2007), pp. 259–260.
- ^ a b Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 18.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 98–99.
- ^ Worth (2006), p. 63.
- ^ Preston (2009), p. 67.
- ^ Tyldesley (2008), p. 51.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bringmann (2007), p. 260.
- ^ Sabino & Gross-Diaz (2016).
- ^ Grout (2017).
- ^ Pina Polo (2013), pp. 184–186.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 54, 174–175.
- ^ a b Hölbl (2001), p. 234.
- ^ a b c d e Roller (2010), p. 61.
- ^ a b c Burstein (2004), p. 18.
- ^ a b c Fletcher (2008), p. 100.
- ^ Hölbl (2001), pp. 234–235.
- ^ Jones (2006), pp. 56–57.
- ^ Jones (2006), pp. 57–58.
- ^ a b Preston (2009), p. 80.
- ^ Worth (2006), p. 66.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 61–62.
- ^ a b c d Hölbl (2001), p. 235.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 112–113.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 62, 26.
- ^ Tyldesley (2008), p. 58.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 62.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 18, 76.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. 18–19.
- ^ a b c Tyldesley (2006), p. 202.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 62–63.
- ^ Hölbl (2001), pp. 235–236.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 118.
- ^ a b c Roller (2010), p. 63.
- ^ Hölbl (2001), p. 236.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 118–119.
- ^ Burstein (2004), p. xxi.
- ^ a b Fletcher (2008), p. 119.
- ^ Worth (2006), pp. 67–68.
- ^ Burstein (2004), p. 76.
- ^ a b Walker & Higgs (2001), pp. 314–315.
- ^ a b c Burstein (2004), p. 19.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 63–64.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 19, 76.
- ^ a b c Roller (2010), p. 64.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 19–21, 76.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 172.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 64, 69.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 19–20.
- ^ a b Fletcher (2008), p. 120.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 120–121.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 64–65.
- ^ Roller (2010), p. 65.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), pp. 65–66.
- ^ a b Burstein (2004), pp. 19–20.
- ^ a b Tyldesley (2008), p. 99.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 126.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 66, 77.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 126–127.
- ^ Roller (2010), p. 66.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 108, 149–150.
- ^ a b c Roller (2010), p. 67.
- ^ a b Burstein (2004), p. 20.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 153.
- ^ Roller (2010), p. 69.
- ^ Anderson (2003), p. 39.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 69–70.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 161–162.
- ^ Preston (2009), p. 88.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 70.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 162–163.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 164, 216.
- ^ Ashton (2008), pp. 83–85.
- ^ Pina Polo (2013), pp. 186, 194 footnote10.
- ^ Tyldesley (2008), p. 104.
- ^ Roller (2010), p. 71.
- ^ a b Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 20.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 179–182.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 21, 57, 72.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 181–182.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 72.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 194–195.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 72, 126.
- ^ a b Burstein (2004), p. 21.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 201–202.
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- ^ Fletcher (2008), pp. 195–196, 201.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 203.
- ^ Preston (2009), p. 110.
- ^ Tyldesley (2008), p. 106.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 71–72, 74.
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- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 74.
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- ^ Preston (2009), p. 123.
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- ^ a b Strudwick (2013), p. 99.
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- ^ Worth (2006), p. 77.
- ^ Worth (2006), p. 143.
- ^ a b c d e f Roller (2010), p. 75.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 21–22.
- ^ a b Burstein (2004), p. 22.
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- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 22–23.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 76.
- ^ a b c Burstein (2004), p. 23.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 76–77.
- ^ a b Burstein (2004), pp. xxi, 23.
- ^ Roller (2010), p. 77.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 77–79.
- ^ Fletcher (2008), p. 205.
- ^ a b c Roller (2010), p. 79.
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- ^ a b Burstein (2004), p. 24.
- ^ Burstein (2004), pp. xxii, 24.
- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 79–80.
- ^ a b c d Burstein (2004), p. 25.
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- ^ Bivar (1983), p. 58.
- ^ Brosius (2006), p. 96.
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- ^ Worth (2006), p. 89.
- ^ a b c Roller (2010), p. 83.
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- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 84.
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- ^ Walker & Higgs (2017).
- ^ a b Kleiner (2005), pp. 155–156.
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- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 85.
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- ^ a b c Roller (2010), p. 86.
- ^ Tyldesley (2008), p. 158.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), pp. 86–87.
- ^ a b c d Burstein (2004), p. 26.
- ^ Preston (2009), p. 184.
- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 89.
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- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 90.
- ^ a b c d e f Burstein (2004), pp. xxii, 25–26.
- ^ Preston (2009), p. 204.
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- ^ Burstein (2004), p. 77.
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- ^ a b Roller (2010), p. 92.
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- ^ Roller (2010), pp. 94, 142.
- ^ Roller (2010), p. 94.
- ^ a b c Roller (2010), p. 95.
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Cited in text
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Further reading
- Bradford, Ernle Dusgate Selby (2000), Cleopatra, Penguin Group, ISBN 978-0-14-139014-7.
- Chauveau, Michel (2002), ISBN 0801438675.
- DeMaria Smith, Margaret Mary (2011), "HRH Cleopatra: the Last of the Ptolemies and the Egyptian Paintings of Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.), Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 150–171, ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5.
- Flamarion, Edith (1997), Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a Pharaoh, "ISBN 978-0-8109-2805-3.
- Foss, Michael (1999), The Search for Cleopatra, Arcade Publishing, ISBN 978-1-55970-503-5.
- Fraser, P.M. (1985), Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1–3 (reprint ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198142782.
- OCLC 671705946.
- Nardo, Don (1994), Cleopatra, Lucent Books, ISBN 978-1-56006-023-9.
- Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1984), Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra, New York: Schocken Books, ISBN 9780805239119.
- ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5.
- Schiff, Stacy (2011), Cleopatra: A Life, Back Bay Books, ISBN 978-0316001946.
- Southern, Pat (2000), Cleopatra, Tempus, ISBN 978-0-7524-1494-2.
- OCLC 404094.
- Volkmann, Hans (1958), Cleopatra: a Study in Politics and Propaganda, T.J. Cadoux, trans, New York: Sagamore Press, OCLC 899077769.
- Weigall, Arthur E. P. Brome (1914), The Life and Times of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, Edinburgh: Blackwood, OCLC 316294139.
- Whitehorne, John (1994), Cleopatras, London: Routledge, ISBN 9780415058063.
- ISBN 978-0-520-24367-5.
External links
- Cleopatra on In Our Time at the BBC.
- Cleopatra, a Victorian children's book by Jacob Abbott, 1852, Project Gutenberg edition.
- Cleopatra VII at BBC History.
- Cleopatra from the online Encyclopædia Britannica.
- Jarus, Owen (13 March 2014). "Cleopatra: Facts & Biography". Live Science.
- Hill, Marsha (October 2016). "Egypt in the Ptolemaic Period". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History (Metropolitan Museum of Art).