Assam

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Coordinates: 26°08′N 91°46′E / 26.14°N 91.77°E / 26.14; 91.77
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Assam
State
State of Assam
From top, left to right: Indian rhinoceros in Kaziranga National Park, Kamakhya Temple, IIT Guwahati, Rang Ghar, Indian elephants in Manas National Park, Majuli Island, Kareng Ghar in Garhgaon, Assam tea garden.
O Mur Apunar Dekh" (O my Dearest Country)
The map of India showing Assam
Location of Assam in India
Coordinates: 26°08′N 91°46′E / 26.14°N 91.77°E / 26.14; 91.77
Country India
RegionNortheast India
Before was State of Assam
Bifurcation21 January 1972
Formation
26 January 1950[2]
State Legislature
Unicameral
 • AssemblyAssam Legislative Assembly (126 seats)
National ParliamentParliament of India
 • Rajya Sabha7 seats
 • Lok Sabha14 seats
High CourtGauhati High Court
Area
 • Total78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi)
 • Rank
Hollong
State highway mark
State highway of Assam
AS SH1 -AS SH48
List of Indian state symbols
• First recognised as an administrative division on 1 April 1911, and led to the establishment of Assam Province by partitioning Province of East Bengal and Assam.
• Assam was one of the original provincial divisions of British India.
• Assam has had a legislature since 1937.[9]

Assam (

Manipuri) is the official language of Hojai district and the entirety of the Barak Valley districts, while Bengali
is an official language in the three districts of Barak Valley.

The state has 35

geomorphic
environment.

Etymology

Main article: Etymology of Assam

The first dated mention of the region comes from

Brahmaputra valley, was called Assam (e.g. Mughals used Asham); and the British province too was called Assam. Though the precise etymology of Assam is not clear, the name Assam is associated with the Ahom people, originally called Shyam (Shan).[16]

History

Main article: History of Assam

Pre-history

Further information: People of Assam

Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlement from the beginning of the Stone Age. The hills at the height of 1,500 to 2,000 feet (460–615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making.[17]

Roman roulette pottery from the 2nd century BCE.[18][19]

Legend

Further information: Danava dynasty, Bhauma dynasty, and Asura Kingdom

According to a late text,

kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. At the same time towards the east in central Assam, Asura Kingdom was ruled by another line of kings.[20]

Ancient era

Kamarupa kingdom at its height
Deopahar ruins
Further information: Kamarupa

Evidence indicates presence of civilisation in Assam around 2nd century BCE, a rock cut stupa at

North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent from Narakasura. In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was extended to c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.[17]

Medieval era

Further information:
Kachari kingdom, and Baro-Bhuyan

The Medieval Assam history may have started with the advent of

Mughals, finally resulting in Assamese victory, however, this military glory was shattered in the early 19th century when it failed to resist the Burmese invasions, which led to its annexation.[25]

Chutia Kingdom

Upper Assam and in the state of Arunachal Pradesh
. It was annexed by the Ahoms in the year 1524. The rivalry between the Chutias and Ahoms for the supremacy of eastern Assam led to a series of conflicts between them from the early 16th century.

Kachari Kingdom

Main article:
Kachari Kingdom

The

North Cachar
, and more as an Ahom ally than a competing force.

Ahom Kingdom

Early Period

Main article: Sukaphaa

The

Kachari kingdom and to the west on the plains were the Baro-Bhuyans
.

For more than two and a half centuries, Sukapha and his descendants, while primarily focused on administering the kingdom, upheld their dominance in the valley through their military prowess.[27]

Expansion

Main articles: Suhungmung and Dimasa Kingdom
Kachari kingdom (1230) in red dotted lines, Koch dynasty (1560) in blue lines, Ahom kingdom
(1700) in red lines.

The reign of Suhungmung marked the first massive expansion of Ahom kingdom. Besides sending a punitive expeditions against the Nagas, they fought numerous battles with the Bhuyans, Chutias, Kacharis, Turko-Afghans, and the Naras. In 1522-23 the Chutia Kingdom was annexed and the captured tract was placed under the administration of Sadiya-Khowa-Gohain. After securing the eastern tract, Suhungmung than expanded his kingdom westwards through conquest and extended it till Marangi to the west of the Dhansiri river. When the Kacharis tried to regain the lost territory they were defeated and their capital Dimapur was sacked. Over the remaining part of the Kachari kingdom, a new king Detsung was placed as a tributary, but Detsung proved disloyal and revolted against the Ahoms. He was subsequently executed. A new dependent king was set up on the Kachari throne with the name of Nirbhaynarayan. Since then the Kachari kings were regarded as 'thapita sanchita' meaning - established and maintained by the Ahom rulers.

Suhungmung's reign also witnessed the first Muslim-invasions of the kingdom. After a series of battle, the invaders were roundly defeated and were chased up to Karatoya River. The Sultan of Bengal, terrified by the approaching army of Suhungmung, made peace by offering his two daughters and five paraganas, along with other articles as dowry to the king. The rising Koch king Biswa Singha also offered his submission, and the Ahom general Ton-Kham granted him all the territories that were received as dowry from the Sultan of Bengal on the condition of annual tribute.[28]

The successors of Suhungmung, Suklenmung and Sukhaamphaa, sent many expeditions against the Bhuyans and Nagas. But were significant with the wars with the Koch. During the reign of Sukhaamphaa, the Ahoms lost to a Koch army led by Chilarai and the Ahoms had to accept Koch supremacy and had to give up the tracts of north of Brahmaputra. However, the lost tract was soon recovered with further military expeditions.[29]

Later Period

War with Mughals

Main articles: Ahom kingdom, Bengal Subah, Koch dynasty, and Ahom–Mughal conflicts
Mughals

Soon after the death of

Barnadi River were annexed in the Mughal domain. This brought the Mughals with direct contact with Ahoms. Meanwhile, Parikshit was trying to renew his friendship with Ahoms, but got captured, and died on his way to his kingdom. Later Balinarayan, a brother of Parikshit who had taken refugee under the Ahoms was made the king of Darrang in 1615 by the Ahom king Pratap Singha. From 1616, onwards many battles were fought the Mughal without any tangible result, with the first Battle of Samdhara
till after the last battle where the treaty was concluded in 1639 which fixed the Asurar ali on the south bank and the Barnadi on the north bank of the Brahmaputra as the boundary between the two. Pratap Singha had also enacted the
Borbarua and Borphukan
.

Garchuk Lachit Garh a 17th-century mud fort ruins

Jayadhwaj Singha taking the advantage of War of succession between the sons of Shah Jahan, occupied the imperial territories up to Dhaka. Aurangzeb after becoming the emperor, appointed Mir Jumla II, to recover the lost territory. After fail negotiations. In November 1661, Mir Jumla proceeded with a huge army and fleet to invade Ahom kingdom. Here the Ahoms, lost at several places, and then captured the Ahom capital Garhgaon. During the rainy season Mir Jumla and his army suffered immeasurable hardship due to the climatic condition of the valley in addition the guerrilla fighting resorted against the invaders. And at last no noticeable gain, negotiation started and in January 1663, Treaty of Ghilajharighat
was concluded. According to the treaty, the Ahoms had to acknowledging Mughal supremacy, ceded the territory west of the Bharali on the north bank and the Kalang on the south bank along with a huge amount of war indemnity and handing over the sons of the Gohains as hostage and two Ahom princesses to the Mughal harem.

Soon after the departure of

Chakradhwaj Singha began preparations to overthrow Mughal supremacy and to recover the lost territory. After numerous battles, finally after the Battle of Saraighat
the Mughals were forced to retreat.

The period after 1671 was very unstable due to the rivalry among the nobles, who wanted to arrest their own political power and influence by placing their own choice of prince in the throne. In 1679,

Gadadhar Singha, fought the final Battle of Itakhuli where the Mughals were badly defeated. And the since then the border was fixed at Manah on the north bank and the Nagarbera hill on the south bank of the Brahmaputra till its annexation by the East India Company in 1826.[30][31]

18th century

See also:
Siva Singha, and Moamoria rebellion
Siva dol, Devi dol and Vishnu dol on the banks Sivasagar tank
, the largest temple constructed during Ahom era
Siva Singha and Ambika
by Badha Ligira, c. 1736.

Gadadhar Singha
, his reign is notable because of his military achievements and his socio-culture contributions. He had both subjugated the Kachari and Jaintia kingdoms, and had captured their kings and forced to accept Ahom suzerainty and agreed them to pay annual tribute. Other than that, several expeditions were sent against the Miris, the Daflas, the Naga Mishmis and the Nagas of Namsung, Dayang and the Rengma Nagas during late 17th century and early 18th century. Rudra Singha had made extensive preparations for his invasion of Bengal but remained unfulfilled due to his sudden death in 1714.

After

Satras and most of the people became their disciples. So got the Ahom court greatly came under the influence of Sakta Brahman priests and astrologers. The religious policies concluded by Phuleshwari and the persecutions of unfavored Satras, embroiled the situation more along with the pressure of Paik system in the 18th century.[32]

This finally resulted in the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), which greatly weakened the Ahom kingdom where the country was greatly depopulated and unorganised. The political rivalry between the nobles made a pathway for the Burmese to invade and weakened it more and finally leading to its annexation.

Colonial era

Map of Eastern Bengal and Assam during 1907–1909
coral and pale) and the princely states
in yellow. The Assam Province (initially as the Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam) can be seen towards the north-eastern side of India.
Further information: Colonial Assam and Assam Province

The discovery of

Camellia assamica
as the most suitable variety for Assam. By the 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. The industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with the invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during the 1870s.

Despite the commercial success, tea labourers continued to be exploited, working and living under poor conditions. Fearful of greater government interference, the tea growers formed the Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo. The organisation was successful in this, but even after India's independence, conditions of the labourers have improved very little.[34]

In the later part of the 18th century, religious tensions and atrocities by the nobles led to the Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), resulting in tremendous casualties of lives and property. The rebellion was suppressed but the kingdom was severely weakened by the civil war. Political rivalry between Prime Minister Purnananda Burhagohain and Badan Chandra Borphukan, the Ahom Viceroy of Western Assam, led to an invitation to the Burmese by the latter,[35][36][37][38] in turn leading to three successive Burmese invasions of Assam. The reigning monarch Chandrakanta Singha tried to check the Burmese invaders but he was defeated after fierce resistance, which led to the Burmese occupation of Assam.[39][40][41]

A reign of terror was unleashed by the Burmese on the Assamese people,

East India Company's borders, and the First Anglo-Burmese War ensued in 1824. The war ended under the Treaty of Yandabo[48] in 1826, with the Company taking control of Western Assam and installing Purandar Singha as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted until 1838 and thereafter the British gradually annexed the entire region. Thereafter the court language and medium of instruction in educational institutions of Assam was made Bengali, instead of Assamese. Starting from 1836 until 1873, this imposition of a foreign tongue created greater unemployment among the People of Assam and Assamese literature naturally suffered in its growth.[49][50]

Showing a historical incident at Kanaklata Udyan, Tezpur

Initially, Assam was made a part of the Bengal Presidency, then in 1906 it was made a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a chief commissioners' province. In 1913, a legislative council and, in 1937, the Assam Legislative Assembly, were formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas.

The Assam territory was first separated from Bengal in 1874 as the 'North-East Frontier'

non-regulation province, also known as the Assam Chief-Commissionership. It was incorporated into the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 after the partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and re-established in 1912 as Assam Province.[51]

After a few initially unsuccessful attempts to gain independence for Assam during the 1850s, anti-colonial Assamese joined and actively supported the

Maulana Bhasani.[52]

The Assam Postage Circle was established by 1873 under the headship of the Deputy Post Master General.[53]

At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. Assam Province was one among the major eight provinces of British India. The table below shows the major original provinces during British India covering the Assam Province under the Administrative Office of the Chief Commissioner.

With the partition of India in 1947, Assam became a constituent state of India. The Sylhet District of Assam (excluding the Karimganj subdivision) was given up to East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh.

Modern history

See also: Assam separatist movements
Assam till the 1950s; The new states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram formed in the 1960-70s. The capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, a suburb of Guwahati. After the Indo-China war in 1962, Arunachal Pradesh was also separated out.

The government of India, which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a state, divided Assam into several states beginning in 1970 within the borders of what was then Assam. In 1963, the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India under the name of

North East Frontier Agency) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were separated from Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986.[54]

Since the restructuring of Assam after independence, communal tensions and violence remain.

Assam Agitation[55] triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring Bangladesh and to provide constitutional, legislative, administrative and cultural safeguards for the indigenous Assamese majority, which they felt was under threat due to the increase of migration from Bangladesh. The agitation ended after an accord (Assam Accord 1985) between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent.[56]

The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups such as the

Panchayati Raj Act has been applied in Assam, after agitation of the communities due to the sluggish rate of development and general apathy of successive state governments towards Indigenous Assamese communities.[citation needed
]

Deadly floods hit the state in

2022.[57]

Geography

Environs: Assam, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east.
Main article: Physical geography of Assam
See also:
Tourism in North East India

A significant geographical aspect of Assam is that it contains three of six physiographic divisions of India – The Northern Himalayas (Eastern Hills), The Northern Plains (Brahmaputra plain) and Deccan Plateau (Karbi Anglong). As the Brahmaputra flows in Assam the climate here is cold and there is rainfall most of the month. Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam, is an

Barak originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border) flows through the Cachar district with a 25–30 miles (40–50 km) wide valley and enters Bangladesh with the name Surma River
.

Urban centres include Guwahati, one of the 100 fastest growing cities in the world.[59] Guwahati is also referred to as the "Gateway to the North-East India". Silchar, (in the Barak valley) is the second most populous city in Assam and an important centre of business. Other large cities include Dibrugarh, an oil and natural gas industry centre,[60]

Climate

With the tropical monsoon climate, Assam is temperate (summer max. at 95–100 °F or 35–38 °C and winter min. at 43–46 °F or 6–8 °C) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity.[58][61] The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperatures and affecting foggy nights and mornings in winters, frequent during the afternoons. Spring (March–April) and autumn (September–October) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature. Assam's agriculture usually depends on the south-west monsoon rains.

Flooding

See also: Brahmaputra floods

Every year, flooding from the Brahmaputra and other rivers such as Barak River etc. deluges places in Assam. The water levels of the rivers rise because of rainfall resulting in the rivers overflowing their banks and engulfing nearby areas. Apart from houses and livestock being washed away by flood water, bridges, railway tracks, and roads are also damaged by the calamity, which causes communication breakdown in many places. Fatalities are also caused by the natural disaster in many places of the State.[62][63]

Fauna

See also: Biodiversity of Assam
golden langur

Assam is one of the richest

grasslands,[65] bamboo[66] orchards and numerous wetland[67]
ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests.

Assam has wildlife sanctuaries, the most prominent of which are two UNESCO

Barca snakehead, Ganges shark, Burmese python, brahminy river turtle, black pond turtle, Asian forest tortoise, and Assam roofed turtle. Threatened species that are extinct in Assam include the gharial, a critically endangered fish-eating crocodilian, and the pink-headed duck (which may be extinct worldwide). For the state bird, the white-winged wood duck, Assam is a globally important area.[clarification needed][69]
In addition to the above, there are three other National Parks in Assam namely Dibru Saikhowa National Park, Nameri National Park and the Orang National Park.

Assam has conserved the one-horned

geomorphic environment.[citation needed
]

The state has the largest population of the wild water buffalo in the world.[70] The state has the highest diversity of birds in India with around 820 species.[71] With subspecies the number is as high as 946.[72] The mammal diversity in the state is around 190 species.[73]

Blooming of Kopou Orchid marks the beginning of the festive season of Bihu in Assam.

Flora

Assam is remarkably rich in

Orchid species and the Foxtail orchid is the state flower of Assam.[74]
The recently established Kaziranga National Orchid and Biodiversity Park boasts more than 500 of the estimated 1,314 orchid species found in India.

Geology

Assam has

natural gas liquids in the Assam Geologic Province.[76][citation needed
]

The region is prone to natural disasters like annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes were recorded in 1869, 1897, and 1950.

Demographics

Main articles:
Demography of Assam, Assamese people, and People of Assam

Population

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1901 3,289,680—    
1911 3,848,617+17.0%
1921 4,636,980+20.5%
1931 5,560,371+19.9%
1941 6,694,790+20.4%
1951 8,028,856+19.9%
1961 10,837,329+35.0%
1971 14,625,152+35.0%
1981 18,041,248+23.4%
1991 22,414,322+24.2%
2001 26,655,528+18.9%
2011 31,205,576+17.1%
Source: Census of India[77]
People gathered at Kamakhya Temple for the Ambubachi Mela

The total population of Assam was 26.66 million with 4.91 million households in 2001.[78] Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts of Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta, Dhubri, Darrang, and Cachar. Assam's population was estimated at 28.67 million in 2006 and at 30.57 million in 2011 and is expected to reach 34.18  million by 2021 and 35.60 million by 2026.[79]

As per the 2011 census, the total population of Assam was 31,169,272. The total population of the state has increased from 26,638,407 to 31,169,272 in the last ten years with a growth rate of 16.93%.[80]

Of the 33 districts, Dhubri, Goalpara, Barpeta, Morigaon, Nagaon, and Hailakandi, recorded growth rates ranging from 20 per cent to 24 per cent during the last decade, whereas Sivasagar and Jorhat, registered around 9 per cent population growth. These districts do not have any international border.[81]

District-wise Demographic Characteristics in 2001

In 2011, the literacy rate in the state was 73.18%. The male literacy rate was 78.81% and the female literacy rate was 67.27%.[80] In 2001, the census had recorded literacy in Assam at 63.3% with male literacy at 71.3% and female at 54.6%. The urbanisation rate was recorded at 12.9%.[82]

The growth of population in Assam has increased since the middle decades of the 20th century. The population grew from 3.29 million in 1901 to 6.70 million in 1941. It increased to 14.63 million in 1971 and 22.41 million in 1991.[78] The growth in the Western districts and Southern districts was high primarily due to the influx of large number of illegal immigrants from East Pakistan, now Bangladesh.[56]

The mistrust and clashes between indigenous Assamese people and

Bodos and Bengali Muslims.[87]

The People of India project has studied 115 of the ethnic groups in Assam. 79 (69%) identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally, and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest settlers were

bilingualism.[citation needed
]

Religions

See also: Hinduism in Assam, Islam in Assam, Christianity in Assam, and Ahom religion
Kamakhya Temple
Panbari Mosque, Dhubri
<div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;

Religion in Assam (2011)[89]

  
No religious (0.16%)
  Tribal Religion (0.09%)
  Jainism (0.08%)
  Sikhism
(0.07%)
Basistha Temple in Guwahati.

According to the

Muslims.[89][90] Christian minorities (3.7%) are found among the Scheduled Tribe and Castes population.[91] The Scheduled Tribe population in Assam is around 13%, of which Bodos account for 40%.[92] Other religions followed include Jainism (0.1%), Buddhism (0.2%), Sikhism (0.1%) and Animism (amongst Khamti, Phake, Aiton
etc. communities).

The three popular sects of Hinduism, namely,

Shaktism, and Vaishnavism are prevalent here. Many Assamese Hindus are also followers of the Ekasarana Dharma sect of Hinduism.[citation needed
]

Assam's Religious diversity as of the 2011 census[93]
Religion Population
Hindus () 19,180,759
Muslims () 10,679,345
Christians () 1,165,867
Buddhists (
) 		54,993
Jains (
) 		25,949
Sikhs () 20,672
Other religions 27,118
Not stated/available 50,873
Total 31,205,576

Out of 32 districts of Assam, 9 are Muslim majority according to the 2011 census of India. The districts are Dhubri, Goalpara, Barpeta, Morigaon, Nagaon, Karimganj, Hailakandi, Darrang and Bongaigaon.[94][95][96]

Languages

See also:
Bodo language, and Meitei language
7th–8th century specimen of Assamese (Kamarupi) literature

Languages of Assam (2011)[97]

  
Hindi (3.21%)
  Sadri (2.29%)
  Mishing (1.98%)
  Nepali (1.91%)
  Karbi
(1.64%)
  Others (7.16%)

Manipuri) is official in Hojai district and all the three districts of Barak Valley, while Bengali is official in the three districts of Barak Valley,[98][4][5] where Sylheti is most commonly spoken.[99]

Assam linguistic diversity as per (2011 census)[93]
Language Population
Assamese 15,097,257
Bengali 9,024,652
Bodo
 1,407,371
Hindi
 1,001,698
Sadri 714,607
Mishing
 617,870
Nepali 596,026
Karbi 511,771
Others 2,234,319
Total 31,205,576
An early 18th century illustrated Assamese manuscript

According to the language census of 2011 in Assam, out of a total population of around 31 million, Assamese is spoken by more than 22 million total speakers, with more than 15 million people speaking it as their

2nd language,[100] while 48.38% of them speak it as their mother tongue.[102] According to the 24th Edition of Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Assamese is spoken by 15,327,990 persons as mother tongue across the world as of 2021.[103] However, 2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election results, have found that 10 million people speaks Assamese as their mother tongue in Assam, which is significantly fewer than the census result of 2011.[104] The Assamese speakers constituted 48% of the State population according to the 2011 Census.[105][106][107][108]

Tai-Ahom manuscript (Buranji)

The various

Bodo is the third most-spoken language followed by Hindi
which comes under fourth position.

See also:
Brahmaputra valley
Brahmaputra valley
region of Assam

Languages spoken in Brahmaputra valley (2011)[116][117]

  
Bodo
(5.13%)
  Others (9.52%)

The population of the Brahmaputra Valley is 27,580,977 according to the 2011 census report by the Assam government. Assamese is the official language of the Brahmaputra Valley and is spoken by 15 million people comprising 55.65% of the valley population. Bengali is spoken by 6.09 million people representing 22.1% of the valley, Hindi is spoken by 2.1 million comprising 7.61% of the region, Bodo is spoken by 1.41 million comprising 5.13% of the valley's population and 2.98 million people speak various indigenous tribal languages of Assam, such as

Rajbangshi, Garo, Dimasa, Gorkha
, Halam, Ao and Motak.

Traditionally, Assamese was the language of the common folk in the ancient

Chutiya Kachari, Borahi Kachari, Ahom and Kamata kingdoms. Traces of the language are found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, and others, in Charyapada (c. 7th–8th century CE). Modern dialects such as Kamrupi and Goalpariya are remnants of this language, which blend into the Rajbanshi and Rangpuri
lects spoken in North Bengal which have the same origin. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by the ethno-cultural groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the stronger kingdoms and was required for economic integration. Localised forms of the language still exist in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh.

Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the American Missionaries based on the local form used near Sivasagar (Xiwôxagôr) district. Assamese (Ôxômiya) is a rich language due to its hybrid nature and unique characteristics of pronunciation and softness. The presence of Voiceless velar fricative in Assamese makes it a unique among other similar Indo-Aryan languages.[118][119]

Tiwa.[citation needed
]

There are approximately 590,000 Nepali speakers spread all over the state forming about 1.98% of Assam's total population according to 2011 census.

There are speakers of Tai languages in Assam. A total of six Tai languages were spoken in Assam. Two are now extinct.[120]

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Assam and Politics of Assam

Assam has Governor

divisions
.

On 19 May 2016,

BJP under the leadership of Sarbananda Sonowal won the Assembly elections, thus forming the first BJP-led government in Assam.[122]

Administrative districts

Kamrup Metro 24. Baksa 25. Nalbari 26. Kamrup 27. Barpeta 28. Chirang 29. Bongaigaon 30. Goalpara 31. Kokrajhar 32. Dhubri 33. South Salmara Mankachar 34. Bajali
(merged with Barpeta district)
Main article: List of districts of Assam

The 31 administrative districts of Assam are delineated based on geographic features such as rivers, hills, and forests.

On 15 August 2015, five new districts were formed:[123][124]

On 27 June 2016, an island in the Brahmaputra River was bifurcated from the Jorhat district and declared the Majuli district, India's first district that is a river island.[125]

On 12 January 2021, Bajali was carved out from Barpeta district and formally declared as a district. With the announcement made by Governor Jagdish Mukhi, it has become the 34th district of Assam.[126]

On 31 December 2022, existing four districts Bajali (with Barpeta), Tamulpur(with Udalguri), Biswanath (with Sonitpur) and Hojai(with Nagaon) and number of district came down to 31.

However, after the delimitation exercise was carried out in Assam, the Assam Cabinet reconstituted the 4 new districts (Bajali, Tamulpur, Biswanath and Hojai), taking the number of districts to 35 again.

Subdivisions

The administrative districts are further subdivided into 54 "Subdivisions" or

district court
.

The

panchayat for group of or individual rural areas and under the urban local bodies for the towns and cities. There are now 2489 village panchayats covering 26247 villages in Assam.[127] The 'town-committee' or nagar-somiti for small towns, 'municipal board' or pouro-sobha for medium towns and municipal corporation
or pouro-nigom for the cities consist of the urban local bodies.

For revenue purposes, the districts are divided into revenue circles and mouzas; for the development projects, the districts are divided into 219 'development-blocks' and for law and order these are divided into 206 police stations or thana.

Municipal Boards
.

A list of 9 oldest, classified and prominent, and constantly inhabited, recognised urban centres based on the earliest years of formation of the civic bodies, before the

Indian independence
of 1947 is tabulated below:

Oldest recognised urban centres of Assam[129]
Urban Centres Civic Body Year Airport Railway Station Railway Junction Road Networks Category† Notes
Guwahati Guwahati Town Committee 1853 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – III
More
Guwahati, the first township of Assam.[130]
Guwahati Municipal Board 1873↑ Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
Guwahati Municipal Corporation 1974↑ Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – I
More
Establishment of Guwahati Municipal Corporation.[131]
Dibrugarh
Dibrugarh Municipal Board
 1873 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
More
Dibrugarh, the second township of Assam.[132]
Goalpara Goalpara Municipal Board 1875 No 1 Yes No 2 Yes Tier – II
More
Formation of Goalpara Municipality, 1875.[133]
Dhubri Dhubri Municipal Board 1883 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
More
Formation of Dhubri Municipality, 1883.[134]
Nagaon Nagaon Municipal Board 1893 No 3 Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
More
Formation of Nagaon Municipality, 1893.[135]
Tezpur Tezpur Municipal Board 1894 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
More
Formation of Tezpur Municipality, 1894.[136]
Jorhat Jorhat Municipal Board 1909 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
More
Formation of Jorhat Municipality, 1909.[137]
Golaghat Golaghat Municipal Board 1920 No 4 Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
More
Formation of Golaghat Municipality, 1920.[138]
Silchar Silchar Municipal Board 1922 Yes Yes Yes Yes Tier – II
More
Formation of Silchar Municipality, 1922.[139]
†Tier – I: a big city with an
Municipal Board.
Tier – III: a small town, larger than a township
with a sizeable human settlement.
↑Upgraded to the next highest form of civic body.
   Jointly shared with the other urban centre. ^1 and ^2 Shared with Guwahati. ^3 Shared with Tezpur. ^4 Shared with Jorhat.

Autonomous Council

The state has three autonomous councils under the sixth schedule of the Indian Constituition.

The state has further statutory autonomous councils constituted under State Act-

In March 2024, the Assam cabinet had given green signal for 'Kiran Sheikh' development council for the 'Kiran Sheikh' community in Barak Valley.[140]

Social issues

Inter-state dispute

According to Assam Government, Assam has border dispute with four states namely Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh.[141]

Assam-Mizoram dispute

Barak valley
region of Assam. Over time, the two states started having different perceptions about where the demarcation should be. While Mizoram wants it to be along an Inner Line Permit notified in 1875 to protect tribals from outside influence, which Mizos feel is part of their historical homeland, Assam wants it to be demarcated according to district boundaries drawn up much later.[141][142]

Assam-Meghalaya dispute

Meghalaya has identified close to a dozen areas on which it has a dispute with Assam about the state's borders. The chief ministers of the two states, Himanta Biswa Sarma and Megahalya's Conrad Sangma, recently held the first-ever meeting on inter-state border dispute. Both the states have agreed to individually assess the claims for all 12 areas flagged by Meghalaya in the past. A second round of discussion between the two state CMs will be held next month of August. On the question of the role the Union Government is playing in redressing the inter-State border dispute in the country, minister of state for home affairs Nityanand Rai said, "The approach of the Central Government has consistently been that inter-state disputes can be resolved only with the cooperation of the State Governments concerned and that the Central Government acts only as a facilitator for amicable settlement of the dispute in the spirit of mutual understanding."[141]

Assam-Nagaland dispute

The border dispute between the two states has been going on since the formation of Nagaland in 1963. The two states lay claim to Merapani, a small village next to the plains of Assam's Golaghat district. There have been reports of violent clashes in the region since the 1960s.[141][143]

Assam-Arunachal Pradesh dispute

Assam shares an 804.10 km inter-state boundary with

Supreme court of India over the issue. Some incidents of local violence have been reported from the borders.[141][144]

Separate statehood demand within Assam

Ahomland

Proposed Ahomland Map

North Assam divisions) respectively.[145] On 2023, "TAI Ahom Yuba Parishad, Assam" (TAYPA) have organised a protest at Chachal and have demanded separate Ahomland state.[146][147]

Barak state

Main article: Barak state movement
Barak Valley

The

Sylhet (Bengal plains), where the Bengalis, according to historian J.B. Bhattacharjee, had settled well before the colonial period, influencing the culture of Dimasa Kacaharis.[148][149] Bhattacharjee describes that the Dimasa kings spoke Bengali, the inscriptions and coins were written in Bengali script and the official language of the court was also Bengali.[149] Migrations to Cachar increased after the British annexation of the region.[149]
The native
Brahmaputra valley which have access to all of those facilities mentioned above.[155][156][157][158][159] In fact, the Assam's Southern part have an overall indigenous Bengali majority population, particularly Hojai have overall (54%) Bengali-speaking population,[160] Barak Valley region have an overwhelming Bengali majority of about 80.3%, while Dima Hasao have approximately 30.2% significant Bengali plurality on certain pockets specially in the urban areas of the district.[116]

Bodoland

Main article:
Bodoland
Bodoland district map

The agitation for the creation of a separate

Bodo Kachari-majority villages in Assam.[161][162] Elections to the council were held on 13 May 2003, and Hagrama Mohilary was sworn in as the chief of the 46-member council on 4 June.[163] Demographic wise, the Indigenous Bodo tribe constitutes half of the region's population, along with the region have also significant large number of other ethnic minorities which includes: Assamese, Koch Rajbangshi, Garo, Rabha tribe, Adivasis, Nepalis, Tea tribes, Bengalis, Biharis, Marwaris and Muslims.[116]

Dimaraji

Main article: Dimaraji
Map of Dimaraji state

The Dimasa people of northeast India have been demanding a separate state called Dimaraji or "Dimaland" for several decades. It would comprise the Dimasa-Kachari inhabited areas, namely Dima Hasao district, Cachar district, parts of Barak Valley, Nagaon district, Hojai district and Karbi Anglong district in Assam together with part of Dimapur district in Nagaland.

Karbiland

See also:
Karbi Anglong

Karbi Anglong is one of the 35 districts of Assam. Karbi Anglong was previously known as Mikir Hills. It was part of the Excluded Areas and Partially Excluded Areas (the present North East India) in British India. The British Indian government had never included this area under their government's jurisdiction. Thereby, no government development work or activity were done, nor any tax levied from the hills including Karbi Anglong. The first memorandum for a Karbi homeland was presented to Governor Reid on 28 October 1940 by Semsonsing Ingti and Khorsing Terang at Mohongdijua.[164] The Karbi leaders were then, a part of the All Party Hill Leaders' Conference (APHLC) which was formed on 6 July 1960.[165] The movement again gained momentum when the Karbi Anglong District Council passed a resolution demanding a Separate State in 1981. Then again from 1986 through the leadership of Autonomous State Demand Committee (ASDC), demanded Autonomous statehood of Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao under Article 244(A). In 2002, the Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council passed another resolution to press for the demand of statehood. Several other memoranda were submitted at different times by several organisations. The demand for a separate state turned violent on 31 July 2013 when student demonstrators set government buildings on fire. Following the incident, the elected leaders of Karbi Anglong jointly submitted a memorandum to the Prime Minister of India demanding a separate State. Demographic wise, more than half of the Karbi Anglong population is made up of Indigenous Karbi tribe with significant migrants from other parts of India.[116]

Migration from Bangladesh

Assam has been a major site of migration since the

Bangladesh liberation war of 1971 as refugees and most of them being Bengali speaking Hindus have decided to stay back in Assam permanently afterwards.[169] Though the governments of India and Bangladesh made agreements for the repatriation of certain groups of refugees after the second and third waves, a large presence of refugees and other migrants and their descendants remained in the state. Nevertheless, still people of Bangladesh have been immigrating to Assam on regular basis. As per reports, about 635 of Bangladeshi people mostly Hindus, use to immigrate to Assam daily.[170][171]

Besides migration caused by displacement, there is also a large and continual unregulated movement between Assam and neighbouring regions of Bangladesh with an exceptionally porous border. The situation is called a risk to Assam's as well as India's security.

Assam accord to settle the conflict.[175]

The 1991 census made the changing demographics of border districts more visible.[178][175] Since 2010, the Indian Government has undertaken the updating of the National Register of Citizens for Assam, and in 2018 the 32.2 million residents of Assam were subject to a review of their citizenship.[179] In August 2019, India released the names of the 2 million residents of Assam that had been determined to be non-citizens and whose names had therefore been struck off the Register of Citizens, depriving them of rights and making them subject to action, and potentially leaving some of them stateless, and the government has begun deporting non-citizens, while detaining 1,000 others that same year.[180][181][182]

In January 2019, the Assam's peasant organisation

BJP, however claimed that only eight lakh Hindu Bangladeshis will get citizenship.[183][184][185] According to various sources, the total number of illegal Hindu Bangladeshis is hard to ascertain.[186][187] According to the census data, the number of Hindu immigrants have been largely exaggerated.[187]

In February 2020, the Assam Minority Development Board announced plans to segregate illegal Bangladeshi Muslim immigrants from the indigenous Muslims of the state, though some have expressed problems in identifying an indigenous Muslim person. According to the board, there are 1.4 crore Muslims in the state, of which 1 crore are of Bangladeshi origin.[188][189][190] A report reveals that out of total 33 districts in Assam, Bangladeshis dominate almost 15 districts of Assam.[191][192][193]

Floods

Main article: Brahmaputra floods

In the rainy season every year, the Brahmaputra and other rivers overflow their banks and flood adjacent land. Flood waters wash away property including houses and livestock. Damage to crops and fields harms the agricultural sector. Bridges, railway tracks, and roads are also damaged, harming transportation and communication, and in some years requiring food to be air-dropped to isolated towns. Some deaths are attributed to the floods.[194][195]

Unemployment

Unemployment is a chronic problem in Assam. It is variously blamed on poor infrastructure, limited connectivity, and government policy;[196] on a "poor work culture";[197] on failure to advertise vacancies;[198] and on government hiring candidates from outside Assam.[199]

In 2020 a series of violent lynchings occurred in the region.

Education

Main article: Education in Assam
See also:
List of colleges affiliated to Gauhati University
See also:
List of colleges affiliated to Assam University
See also:
List of educational institutions in Assam

Assam schools are run by the Indian government, government of Assam or by private organisations. Medium of instruction is mainly in Assamese, English or Bengali. Most of the schools follow the state's examination board which is called the

Indian School Certificate (ISC) syllabuses.[citation needed
]

Assamese language is the main medium in educational institutions but Bengali language is also taught as a major Indian language. In Guwahati and Digboi, many Jr. basic schools and Jr. high schools are Nepali linguistic and all the teachers are Nepali. Nepali is included by Assam State Secondary Board, Assam Higher Secondary Education Council and Gauhati University in their HSLC, higher secondary and graduation level respectively. In some junior basic and higher secondary schools and colleges, Nepali teachers and lecturers are appointed.[citation needed]

The capital, Dispur, contains institutions of higher education for students of the north-eastern region. Cotton College, Guwahati, dates back to the 19th century. Assam has several institutions for tertiary education and research.[citation needed]

Universities, colleges and institutions include:

Universities

Medical colleges

Assam has 12 medical colleges at present with 4 more scheduled to be completed by 2026–27.

Engineering and technological colleges

Research institutes present in the state include National Research Centre on Pig, (ICAR) in Guwahati,[216]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Assam
Per capita income of Assam since 1950

Assam's economy is based on agriculture and oil. Assam produces more than half of India's tea.[217] The Assam-Arakan basin holds about a quarter of the country's oil reserves, and produces about 12% of its total petroleum.[218] According to the recent estimates,[219] Assam's per capita GDP is ₹6,157 at constant prices (1993–94) and ₹10,198 at current prices; almost 40% lower than that in India.[220] According to the recent estimates,[219] per capita income in Assam has reached ₹6756 (1993–94 constant prices) in 2004–05, which is still much lower than India's.

A paddy field in Assam
A tea garden in Assam: tea is grown at elevations near sea level, giving it a malty sweetness and an earthy flavor, as opposed to the more floral aroma of highland (e.g. Darjeeling, Taiwanese) teas

Tea plantations

Main article: Assam tea
Process of making tea in Assam
This 1850 engraving shows the different stages in the process of making tea in Assam

Macro-economy

The economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness amidst plenty.[221][full citation needed] Despite its rich natural resources, and supplying of up to 25% of India's petroleum needs, Assam's growth rate has not kept pace with that of India; the difference has increased rapidly since the 1970s.[222] The Indian economy grew at 6% per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000; the growth rate of Assam was only 3.3%.[223] In the Sixth Plan period, Assam experienced a negative growth rate of 3.78% when India's was positive at 6%.[222] In the post-liberalised era (after 1991), the difference widened further.

According to recent analysis, Assam's economy is showing signs of improvement. In 2001–02, the economy grew (at 1993–94 constant prices) at 4.5%, falling to 3.4% in the next financial year.[224] During 2003–04 and 2004–05, the economy grew (at 1993–94 constant prices) at 5.5% and 5.3% respectively.[224] The advanced estimates placed the growth rate for 2005–06 at above 6%.[219] Assam's GDP in 2004 is estimated at $13 billion in current prices. Sectoral analysis again exhibits a dismal picture. The average annual growth rate of agriculture, which was 2.6% per annum over the 1980s, has fallen to 1.6% in the 1990s.[225] The manufacturing sector showed some improvement in the 1990s with a growth rate of 3.4% per annum than 2.4% in the 1980s.[225] For the past five decades, the tertiary sector has registered the highest growth rates of the other sectors, which even has slowed down in the 1990s than in the 1980s.[225]

Employment

Unemployment is one of the major problems in Assam. This problem can be attributed to overpopulation and a faulty education system. Every year, large numbers of students obtain higher academic degrees but because of non-availability of proportional vacancies, most of these students remain unemployed.[226][227] A number of employers hire over-qualified or efficient, but under-certified, candidates, or candidates with narrowly defined qualifications. The problem is exacerbated by the growth in the number of technical institutes in Assam which increases the unemployed community of the State. Many job-seekers are eligible for jobs in sectors like railways and Oil India but do not get these jobs because of the appointment of candidates from outside of Assam to these posts. The reluctance on the part of the departments concerned to advertise vacancies in vernacular language has also made matters worse for local unemployed youths particularly for the job-seekers of Grade C and D vacancies.[228][229]

Reduction of the unemployed has been threatened by illegal immigration from Bangladesh. This has increased the workforce without a commensurate increase in jobs. Immigrants compete with local workers for jobs at lower wages, particularly in construction, domestics, Rickshaw-pullers, and vegetable sellers.[230][231] The government has been identifying (via NRC) and deporting illegal immigrants. Continued immigration is exceeding deportation.[232][233]

Agriculture

Assamese women busy planting paddy seedlings in their agricultural field in Pahukata village in the Nagaon district of Assam

In Assam among all the productive sectors, agriculture makes the highest contribution to its domestic sectors, accounting for more than a third of Assam's income and employs 69% of workforce.[234] Assam's biggest contribution to the world is Assam tea. It has its own variety, Camellia sinensis var. assamica. The state produces rice, rapeseed, mustard seed, jute, potato, sweet potato, banana, papaya, areca nut, sugarcane and turmeric.[citation needed]

Assam's agriculture is yet to experience modernisation in a real sense. With implications for food security, per capita food grain production has declined in the past five decades.[235] Productivity has increased marginally, but is still low compared to highly productive regions. For instance, the yield of rice (a staple food of Assam) was just 1531 kg per hectare against India's 1927 kg per hectare in 2000–01[235] (which itself is much lower than Egypt's 9283, US's 7279, South Korea's 6838, Japan's 6635 and China's 6131 kg per hectare in 2001[236]). On the other hand, after having strong domestic demand, and with 1.5 million hectares of inland water bodies, numerous rivers and 165 varieties of fishes,[237] fishing is still in its traditional form and production is not self-sufficient.[238]

Floods in Assam greatly affect the farmers and the families dependent on agriculture because of large-scale damage of agricultural fields and crops by flood water.

2016 Assam floods

Infrastructure

On 30 August 2023, Nilachal Flyover was inaugurated. The flyover is Assam's longest flyover, spanning 2.63 kilometres and connecting Maligaon Chariali to Kamakhya Gate in Guwahati.[241]

Industry

Handlooms and handicrafts are traditional industries that continue to survive, especially among rural women, in the state.[242]

Assam's proximity to some neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, benefits its trade. The major

Darrang connecting Bhutan. There are several Land Custom Stations (LCS) in the state bordering Bangladesh and Bhutan to facilitate border trade.[243]

The government of India has identified some thrust areas for industrial development of Assam:[244]

  • Petroleum and natural gas-based industries
  • Industries based on locally available minerals
  • Processing of plantation crops
  • Food processing industries
  • Agri-Horticulture products
  • Herbal products
  • Biotech products
  • Pharmaceuticals
  • Chemical and plastic-based industries
  • Export oriented industries
  • Electronic and IT base industries including services sector
  • Paper making industries
  • Textiles and sericulture
  • Engineering industries
  • Cane and bamboo-based industries
  • Other handicrafts industry

Although, the region in the eastern periphery of India is landlocked and is linked to the mainland by the narrow

Druk Air of Bhutan, was the 12th busiest airport of India in 2012.[245] The cities of Guwahati[246][247] in the west and Dibrugarh[248][249] in the east with good rail,[250][251] road and air connectivity are the two important nerve centres of Assam, to be selected by Asian Development Bank for providing $200 million for improvement of urban infrastructure.[252][253]

Assam is a producer of

Oil India Ltd. has its plant and headquarters at Duliajan
.

There are several other industries, including a chemical

Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd. Township Area Panchgram and Jogighopa, sugar mills in Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, cement plants in Bokajan and Badarpur, and a cosmetics plant of Hindustan Unilever (HUL) at Doom Dooma. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, Assam silk, and silk mills. Many of these industries are facing losses and closure due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.[257]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Assam
See also:
Tourism in North East India

Wildlife, cultural, and historical destinations have attracted visitors.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Assam
See also: Assamese cinema
Moran bihu dance in the traditional attire of the Moran people on the occasion of Bohag Bihu

Tibeto-Burman, Indo-aryan and Tai inhabitants. Therefore, both local elements or the local elements in Sanskritised forms are distinctly found.[258]
The major milestones in the evolution of Assamese culture are:

Dakhinpat Satra of Majuli
  • Assimilation in the Kamarupa Kingdom for almost 800 years (Varman dynasty for 300 years, Mlechchha dynasty for 250 years and the Pala dynasty for 200 years.[17]
  • Establishment of the Chutia kingdom in the 12th century in eastern Assam and assimilation for next 400 years.[17]
  • Establishment of the
    Ahom kingdom in the 13th century CE and assimilation for next 600 years.[17]
  • Assimilation in the
    Koch Kingdom (15th–16th century CE) of western Assam and Kachari Kingdom (12th–18th century CE) of central and southern Assam.[17]
  • sattra (the Vaishnav Monasteries) have become an integral part of the Assamese way of life. The movement contributed greatly towards language, literature, and performing and fine arts.[citation needed]. It was also an egalitarian reform movement as it broke away with the old caste barriers of Brahmanical Hinduism and converted into its fold people of all castes, ethnicity and religions (including Islam
    ).
Gayan Bayan in Majuli
, the Neo-Vaishnavite cultural heritage of Assam

The modern culture has been influenced by events in the British and the post-British era.

Sibsagar District (the centre of the Ahom Kingdom) forming the standardised dialect. [citation needed
]

Increasing efforts of standardisation in the 20th century alienated the localised forms present in different areas and with the less-assimilated

Bodo or Karbi or Mishing
. It is important to keep the broader system closer to its roots and at the same time focus on development of the sub-systems.

Some of the common and unique cultural traits in the region are peoples' respect towards

gamosa, arnai, etc.), traditional silk garments (e.g. mekhela chador
, traditional dress of Assamese women) and towards forefathers and elderly. Moreover, great hospitality and bamboo culture are common.

Symbols

See also: List of Assam state symbols and Jaapi
A Mising woman using a handloom to weave a traditional Mekhela chador dress.
A decorative Assamese Jaapi laid over a Gamosa

Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam and is still a very important part of the Assamese way of life. Various elements are used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc.

Tamulpan (areca nut and betel leaves), Xorai and Gamosa are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture. Tamulpan or guapan (gua from kwa) are considered along with the Gamosa (a typical woven cotton or silk cloth with embroidery) as the offers of devotion, respect and friendship. The Tamulpan-tradition is an ancient one and is being followed since time-immemorial with roots in the aboriginal Austric culture. Xorai is a traditionally manufactured bell-metal article of great respect and is used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers. Moreover, symbolically many ethno-cultural groups use specific clothes to portray respect and pride.

Singhasan of manikut in a Namghar

There were many other symbolic elements and designs, but are now only found in literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc. or in use today for only religious purposes. The typical designs of Assamese-lion, dragon (ngi-ngao-kham), and flying-lion (Naam-singho) are used for symbolising various purposes and occasions. The archaeological sites such as the Madan Kamdev (c. 9th–10th centuries CE) exhibits mass-scale use of lions, dragon-lions and many other figures of demons to show case power and prosperity.

Jhumura

The Vaishnavite monasteries (Sattras) and many other architectural sites of the late medieval period display the use of lions and dragons for symbolic effects.

Festivals and traditions

Main article:
List of festivals in Assam
See also: Domahi, Bohag Bihu, Magh Bihu, and Bwisagu
pepa
(horn)