Religion in Israel

Religion in Israel is manifested primarily in

The religious affiliation of the Israeli population as of 2022 was 73.6% Jewish, 18.1% Muslim, 1.9% Christian, and 1.6% Druze. The remaining 4.8% included faiths such as Samaritanism and Baháʼí, as well as "religiously unclassified".^[4] While Jewish Israelis are all technically under the jurisdiction of the state Orthodox rabbinate,^[5] personal attitudes vary immensely, from extreme Orthodoxy to irreligion and atheism.

Jews in Israel mainly classify themselves along a fourfold axis, from least to most observant, hiloni (lit. 'secular'); masorti (lit. 'traditional'); dati (lit. 'religious' or 'orthodox', including religious zionist); and haredi (lit. 'ultra-religious' or 'ultra-orthodox').^[6][7]

Israeli law guarantees considerable privileges and freedom to practice for the recognized communities,^[8][9] but, in tandem, does not necessarily do so for other faiths. The Pew Research Center has identified Israel as one of the countries that place "high restrictions" on the free exercise of religion^[10] and there have been limits placed on non-Orthodox Jewish religious movements, which are unrecognized.^[11][12] Pew ranked Israel as fifth globally in terms of "inter-religious tension and violence".^[13]

Religious self-definition

A Gallup survey in 2015 determined that 65% of Israelis say they are either "not religious" or "convinced atheists", while 30% say they are "religious". Israel is in the middle of the international religiosity scale, between Thailand, the world's most religious country, and China, the least religious.^[14]

As of 1999^[update], 65% of Israeli Jews believed in

As of 2009[update], 42% of Israeli Jews defined themselves as "secular"; on the other opposite, 8% defined themselves as haredi (ultra-orthodox); an additional 12% as "religious"; 13% as "traditional (religious)"; and 25% as "traditional (non-religious)".^[19]

In 2022, 45% of Israel Jews self-identified as "secular"; 10% as haredi (ultra-orthodox); 33% as masorti (lit. 'traditional'); and 12% as dati (lit. 'religious' or 'orthodox', including religious zionist).

Of the

Among the Arab population, a 2010 research showed that 8% defined themselves as very religious, 47% as religious, 27% as not very religious, and 18% as not religious.[21]

Religious groups

Judaism

Most citizens in the State of Israel are Jewish.^[22] As of 2022, Jews made up 73.6% percent of the population.^[23]

Secular-traditional spectrum

In 2007, a

Because the terms "secular" (hiloni) and "traditional" (masorti) are not strictly defined,^[25][26] published estimates of the percentage of Israeli Jews who are considered "traditional" range from 32%^[27] to 55%.^[28] A Gallup survey in 2015 determined that 65% of Israelis say they are either "not religious" or "convinced atheists", while 30% say they are "religious". Israel is in the middle of the international religiosity scale, between Thailand, the world's most religious country, and China, the least religious.^[14] The Israeli Democracy Index commissioned in 2013 by the Israel Democracy Institute regarding religious affiliation with religious movements of Israeli Jews found that 3.9 percent of respondents felt attached to Reform (Progressive) Judaism, 3.2 percent to Conservative Judaism, and 26.5 percent to Orthodox Judaism. The other two thirds of respondents said they felt no connection to any denomination, or declined to respond.^[18] However, it does not mean, that the secular/hiloni Israelis are without other forms of spirituality.^[29][30]

There is also a growing baal teshuva (Jewish returners) movement, involved with all Jewish denominations, of secular Israelis rejecting their previously secular lifestyles and choosing to become religiously observant, with many educational programs and yeshivas for them.^{[citation needed]} An example is Aish HaTorah, which received open encouragement from some sectors within the Israeli establishment.

At the same time, there is also a significant movement in the opposite direction toward a secular lifestyle. There is some debate which trend is stronger at present. Recent polls show that ranks of secular Jewish minority in Israel continued to drop in 2009. Currently, the secular make up only 42%.^[31]

Orthodox spectrum

What would be called "Orthodox" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called dati ("religious") or Haredi ("ultra-Orthodox") in Israel.^[6][32] The former term includes what is called Religious Zionism or the "National Religious" community (and also Modern Orthodox in US terms), as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as Hardal (Haredi-Leumi, i. e., "ultra-Orthodox nationalist"), which combines a largely Haredi lifestyle with a nationalist (i. e., pro-Zionist) ideology.

Haredi applies to a populace that can be roughly divided into three separate groups, except mentioned Hardal, along both ethnic and ideological lines: (1) "

Ultra-Orthodox sector is relatively young and numbered in 2020 more than 1,1 million (14 percent of total population).[33]

Non-Orthodox denominations of Judaism

Conservative, Reform (the Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism), Reconstructionist, Humanistic Judaism (the International Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism) and other new non-Orthodox Jewish religious movements are represented among Israeli Jews.^{[34][35][36][5][37]} According to The Israel Democracy Institute, as of 2013, approximately 7 percent of Israel's Jewish population "identified" with Reform and Conservative Judaism,^[18] a study by Pew Research Center showed 5% did,^[32] while a Midgam survey showed that one third "especially identified with Progressive Judaism", almost as many as those who especially identify with Orthodox Judaism. Only a few authors, like Elliot Nelson Dorff, consider the Israeli social group masortim (traditionalists) to be one and the same with the Western Conservative (masorti) movement,^[38] it produces understanding Conservative Judaism as a major denomination in Israel, associated with a large social sector.

The Chief Rabbinate strongly opposes the Reform and Conservative movements,^[37] saying they are "uprooting Judaism", that they cause assimilation and that they have “no connection” to authentic Judaism.^[39] The chief rabbinate's view does not reflect the majority viewpoint of Israeli Jews, however. A survey of Israeli Jews published in May 2016 showed that 72 percent of respondents said they disagreed with the Haredi assertions that Reform Jews are not really Jewish. The survey also showed that a third of Israeli Jews "identify" with progressive (Reform or Conservative) Judaism and almost two thirds agree that Reform Judaism should have equal rights in Israel with Orthodox Judaism.^[40] The report was organized by the Israel Movement for Reform and Progressive Judaism ahead of its 52nd biennial conference.

Secular–religious status quo

The religious

• The Chief Rabbinate has authority over
  marriage
  , divorce, and conversions.
• Streets in
  Haredi
  neighborhoods are closed to traffic on the Jewish Sabbath.
• There is no public transport on the Jewish Sabbath, and most businesses are closed. However, there is public transport in Haifa, since Haifa had a large Arab population at the time of the British Mandate.
• Restaurants who wish to advertise themselves as
  kosher must be certified by the Chief Rabbinate
  .
• Importation of non-kosher foods is prohibited. Despite this prohibition, a few pork farms supply establishments selling white meat, due to demand therefore among specific population sectors, particularly the Russian immigrants of the 1990s. Despite the status quo, the Supreme Court ruled in 2004 that local governments are not allowed to ban the sale of pork, although this had previously been a common by-law.

Nevertheless, some breaches of the status quo have become prevalent, such as several suburban malls remaining open during the Sabbath. Though this is contrary to the law, the government largely turns a blind eye.

While the state of Israel enables freedom of religion for all of its citizens, it does not enable civil marriage. The state forbids and disapproves of any civil marriages or non-religious divorces performed amongst within the country. Because of this, some Israelis choose to marry outside of Israel. Many parts of the "status quo" have been challenged by secular Israelis regarding the Chief Rabbinate's strict control over Jewish weddings, Jewish divorce proceedings, conversions, and the question of

The Ministry of Education manages the secular and Orthodox school networks of various faiths in parallel, with a limited degree of independence and a common core curriculum.

In recent years, perceived frustration with the status quo among the secular population has strengthened parties such as Shinui, which advocate separation of religion and state, without much success so far.

Today the secular Israeli Jews claim that they aren't religious and don't observe Jewish law, and that Israel as a democratic modern country should not force the observance thereof upon its citizens against their will. The Orthodox Israeli Jews claim that the separation between state and religion will contribute to the end of Israel's Jewish identity.^[25]

Signs of the first challenge to the status quo came in 1977, with the fall of the Labor government that had been in power since independence, and the formation of a right-wing coalition under Menachem Begin. Right-wing Revisionist Zionism had always been more acceptable to the Orthodox parties, since it did not share the same history of anti-religious rhetoric that marked socialist Zionism. Furthermore, Begin needed the Haredi members of the Knesset (Israel's unicameral parliament) to form his coalition, and offered more power and benefits to their community than what they had been accustomed to receiving, including a lifting of the numerical limit on military exemptions for those engaged in full-time Torah study.^{[citation needed]}

On the other hand, secular Israelis began questioning whether a "status quo" based on the conditions of the 1940s and 1950s was still relevant in the 1980s and 1990s, and reckoned that they had cultural and institutional support to enable them to change it regardless of its relevance. They challenged Orthodox control of personal affairs such as marriage and divorce, resented the lack of entertainment and transportation options on the Jewish Sabbath (then the country's only day of rest), and questioned whether the burden of military service was being shared equitably,^[25] since the 400 scholars who originally benefited from the exemption, had grown to 50,000 ^{[citation needed]}. Finally, the Progressive and Conservative communities, though still small, began to exert themselves as an alternative to the Haredi control of religious issues. No one was happy with the "status quo"; the Orthodox used their newfound political force to attempt to extend religious control, and the non-Orthodox sought to reduce or even eliminate it.^[37][40]

Chief Rabbinate

Main article:

Eretz Yisrael was part of a divine plan for the settlement of the land of Israel. The return to Israel was in Kook's view not merely a political phenomenon to save Jews from persecution, but an event of extraordinary historical and theological significance.^{[citation needed}

]

Prior to the 1917 British conquest of Palestine, the Ottomans had recognized the leading rabbis of the Old Yishuv as the official leaders of the small Jewish community that for many centuries consisted mostly of the devoutly Orthodox Jews from Eastern Europe as well as those from the Levant who had made aliyah to the Holy Land, primarily for religious reasons. The European immigrants had unified themselves in an organization initially known as the Vaad Ha'ir, which later changed its name to Edah HaChareidis. The Turks viewed the local rabbis of Palestine as extensions of their own Orthodox Hakham Bashis ("[Turkish] Chief Rabbi/s") who were loyal to the Sultan.^{[citation needed]}

Thus the centrality of an Orthodox dominated Chief Rabbinate became part of the new state of Israel as well when it was

established in 1948. ^{[citation needed]}Based in its central offices at Heichal Shlomo in Jerusalem the Israeli Chief rabbinate has continued to wield exclusive control over all the Jewish religious aspects of the secular state of Israel. Through a complex system of "advice and consent" from a variety of senior rabbis and influential politicians, each Israeli city and town also gets to elect its own local Orthodox Chief Rabbi who is looked up to by substantial regional and even national religious and even non-religious Israeli Jews.^{[citation needed}

]

Through a national network of

Jubilee year in the agricultural sphere.^{[citation needed}

]

The Israel Defense Forces also relies on the Chief Rabbinate's approval for its own Jewish chaplains who are exclusively Orthodox. The IDF has a number of units that cater to the unique religious requirements of the Religious Zionist yeshiva students through the Hesder program of combined alternating military service and yeshiva studies over several years.^{[citation needed]}

A poll conducted by the Israel Democracy Institute in April and May 2014 of which institutions were most and least trusted by Israeli citizens showed that Israelis have little trust in the religious establishment. When asked which public institutions they most trusted, the Chief Rabbinate at 29% was one of the least trusted.^[42]

Karaite Judaism

The

Beer-Sheva. There are an estimated 10,000 additional Karaites living elsewhere around the world, mainly in the United States, Turkey,^[47] Poland,^[48]

and elsewhere in Europe.

Conversion process

On 7 December 2016, the chief rabbis of Israel issued a new policy requiring that foreign Jewish converts be recognized in Israel, and vowed to release criteria required for recognizing rabbis who perform such conversions.[49] Previously, such conversions were not required to be recognized.^[49] However, within one week the chief rabbis had retracted their earlier promise and instead appointed members to a joint committee of five rabbis who would formulate the conversion criteria.^[50]

Samaritans

Further information: Samaritanism and Samaritans

Israel is home to the only significant populations of Samaritans in the world. They are adherents of Samaritanism—an Abrahamic religion similar to Judaism.^[51][52] As of 1 November 2007, there were 712 Samaritans.

Israelite inhabitants from the tribes of Joseph (divided between the two "half tribes" of Ephraim and Manasseh), and the priestly tribe of Levi.^[54] Despite being counted separately in the census, for the purposes of citizenship, the Israeli Chief Rabbinate has classified them as Jews according to law.^[55]

Christianity

Main article: Christianity in Israel

Most Christians living permanently in Israel are Arabs, or have come from other countries to live and work mainly in churches or monasteries, which have long and enduring histories in the land.^{[citation needed]} Ten churches are officially recognized under Israel's confessional system, which provides for the self-regulation of status issues, such as marriage and divorce. These are the Catholic Church (including the Latin Church, Armenian Catholic Church, Maronite Church, Melkite Greek Catholic Church, Syriac Catholic Church, and Chaldean Catholic Church), Eastern Orthodox Church (particularly the Greek Orthodox Church), the Syriac Orthodox Church, and Anglicans.^[56]

academic degrees at higher rates than Jews, Druze or Muslims in Israel.^[58]

There is also a small community of

Patriarchal Vicar was appointed for the first time by the Vatican to oversee the Hebrew Catholic community in Israel.^[59]

According to historical and traditional sources, Jesus lived in the Land of Israel, and died and was buried on the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, making the land a Holy Land for Christianity. However, few Christians now live in the area, compared to Muslims and Jews. This is because Islam displaced Christianity in almost all of the Middle East, and the rise of modern Zionism and the establishment of the State of Israel has seen millions of Jews migrate to Israel. Recently, the Christian population in Israel has increased with the immigration of foreign workers from a number of countries, and the immigration of accompanying non-Jewish spouses in mixed marriages. Numerous churches have opened in Tel Aviv.^[60]

Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches

Most Christians in Israel belong primarily to branches of the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches that oversee a variety of church buildings, monasteries, seminaries, and religious institutions all over the land, particularly in Jerusalem.^{[citation needed]}

Protestants

Protestant Christians account for less than one percent of Israeli citizens, but foreign evangelical Protestants are a prominent source of political support for the State of Israel (see Christian Zionism).^[61] Each year hundreds of thousands of Protestant Christians come as tourists to see Israel.^[62]

Messianic Judaism

Main article: Messianic Judaism

Messianic Judaism is a religious movement that arose within Evangelical Protestantism and incorporates elements of Judaism with the

Jewish festivals. Although followers of Messianic Judaism are not considered Jews under Israel's Law of Return,^[65] there are an estimated 10,000–20,000 adherents in the State of Israel, both Jews and other non-Arab Israelis, many of them recent immigrants from the former Soviet Union.^[66][67] In Jerusalem, there are twelve Messianic congregations^{[68][failed verification]}. This is growing religious group in Israel, according to both its proponents and critics.^[67][69] In Israel Jewish Christians themselves, go by the name Meshiykhiyyim (from Messiah, as found in the Franz Delitzsch Hebrew New Testament) rather than the traditional Talmudic name for Christians Notzrim (from Nazarene).^[70][71]

Islam

Main article: Islam in Israel

Jerusalem is a city of major religious significance for Muslims worldwide. After capturing the Old City of Jerusalem in 1967, Israel found itself in control of Mount Moriah, which was the site of both Jewish temples and Islam's third holiest site, after those in

Jami Al-Aqsa on it, is the third-holiest site in Islam (and the holiest in Judaism). Since 1967, the Israeli government has granted authority to a Waqf to administer the area. Rumors that the Israeli government are seeking to demolish the Muslim sites have angered Muslims. These beliefs are possibly related to excavations that have been taking place close to the Temple Mount, with the intention of gathering archeological remnants of the first and second temple period,^[72][73] as well as the stance of some rabbis and activists who call for its destruction to replace it with the Third Temple.^[74]

Most Muslims in Israel are

Hashemites based in Jordan, and not to the House of Saud. The Hashemites thus became the official guardians of the Islamic holy places of Jerusalem and the areas around it, particularly strong when Jordan controlled the West Bank

(1948–1967).

In 1922 the British had created the

Amin al-Husayni (1895–1974) as the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem. The council was disbanded by Jordan in 1951.^{[citation needed]} Israeli Muslims are free to teach Islam to their children in their own schools, and there are a number of Islamic universities and colleges in Israel and the territories. Islamic law remains the law for concerns relating to, for example, marriage, divorce, inheritance and other family matters relating to Muslims, without the need for formal recognition arrangements of the kind extended to the main Christian churches. Similarly Ottoman law, in the form of the Mecelle, for a long time remained the basis of large parts of Israeli law, for example concerning land ownership.^[76]

Ahmadiyya

Main article: Ahmadiyya in Israel

caliph of the Community Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad and a number of missionaries. However, the Community was first established in the region in 1928, in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine. The first converts to the movement belonged to the Odeh tribe who originated from Ni'lin, a small village near Jerusalem. In the 1950s they settled in Kababir, a former village which was later absorbed by the city of Haifa.^[77] The neighbourhood's first mosque was built in 1931, and a larger one, called the Mahmood Mosque, in the 1980s. Israel is the only country in the Middle East where Ahmadi Muslims can openly practice their Islamic faith. As such, Kababir, a neighbourhood on Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel, acts as the Middle Eastern headquarters of the Community.^[78][79] It is unknown how many Israeli Ahmadis there are, although it is estimated there are about 2,200 Ahmadis in Kababir.^[80]

Druze

Main article: Druze in Israel

Israel is home to about 143,000

Ismaili Islam, Druze do not identify as Muslims,^{[84][85][86][87][88]} and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam.^[89]

Baháʼí Faith

See also: Baháʼí World Centre

Baháʼí Arc

from the International Archives building

The

Bahá'u'lláh's imprisonment in Acre in the early 1870s by the Ottoman Empire.^{[citation needed]} The progress of these properties in construction projects was welcomed by the mayor of Haifa Amram Mitzna (1993–2003).^[90] As far back as 1969 a presence of Baháʼís was noted mostly centered around Haifa in Israeli publications.^[91] Several newspapers in Israel since then have noted the presence of Baháʼís in the Haifa area of some 6-700 volunteers with no salaries, getting only living allowances and housing,^[92][93] and that if an Israeli citizen were to wish to convert they would be told that "the religion does not seek or accept converts in the State of Israel"^[93][94] and that if they persist it is a personal matter between them and God and not a matter of joining a community of believers.^[93] Baháʼís generally practice a "staunch political quietism"^[90] and "do not engage in any missionary activity in Israel".^[90] Even Baháʼís from outside Israel are instructed to not "teach" the religion to citizens of Israel.^[95] The religion's situation in Israel was specified in an agreement signed in 1987 by then Vice-Premier and Foreign Minister, Shimon Peres as a "recognized religious community in Israel", that the "holiest places of the Baháʼí Faith, … are located in Israel, and confirms that the Universal House of Justice is the Trustee of the Baháʼí International Community over the Holy Places of the Baháʼí Faith in Israel and over the Bahá’í endowments in Israel".^[96] Baháʼís from other countries, wishing to visit Israel, are required to seek written permission from the Universal House of Justice prior to their visit for Baháʼí pilgrimage.^[97]

Hinduism

Main article: Hinduism in Israel

The small Hindu community in Israel is mostly made up of representatives of the

Katzir-Harish.^[98]

Neopaganism

Main article: Semitic neopaganism

Although the exact number of adherents are unknown (one old estimate was 150 total), primarily due to societal stigma and persecution, a growing number of young Israelis are secretly reviving the pre-Judaic polytheistic worship of ancient

Wiccan.^[99]

African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem

Main article:

African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem

Sanctity of certain sites

Jerusalem

See also: Religious significance of Jerusalem

Jerusalem plays an important role in three

monotheistic religions — Judaism, Christianity, and Islam — and Haifa and Acre play a role in a fourth, Baháʼí. Mount Gerizim is a holy site to what can be considered a fifth, Samaritanism. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city.^[100] Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy. Jerusalem has been sacred to the Jews since the 10th century BC. The Western Wall, a remnant of the Second Temple, is a holy site for Jews, second only to the Temple Mount itself.^[101]

Christianity reveres Jerusalem not only for its role in the

Coptic churches are also well represented in Jerusalem.^[104]

Jerusalem is the third-holiest city in

Jami Al-Aqsa, and the Dome of the Rock, which stands over the Foundation Stone, from which Muslims believe Muhammad ascended to Heaven.^[107]

Other sites

As for the importance of Haifa and Acre in

Bahá'u'lláh

, who was imprisoned in Acre and spent his final years there.

Mount Gerizim is the holiest site to Samaritans, who used it as the site of their temple.

Religious relations

Main article: Religious relations in Israel

Within the Jewish community

See also: Haredim and Zionism

The State of Israel generally respects freedom of religion. Freedom House reports: "Freedom of religion is respected. Each community has jurisdiction over its own members in matters of marriage, burial, and divorce."

Religious tensions exist between Jewish haredi and non-haredi Israeli Jews. Haredi Israeli males devote their young adulthood to full-time Talmudic studies and therefore generally get exemptions from military service in the Israel Defense Forces. Many leaders of haredi Judaism encourage these students to apply for exemptions from the mandatory army service, ostensibly to protect them from the secularizing influence of the Israeli army. Over the years, the number of exemptions has grown to about 10% of conscriptable manpower. Many secular Israelis consider these exemptions to be a systematic shirking of their patriotic duty by a large segment of society.^{[citation needed]}

Haredi Israelis are represented by haredi political parties, which like all smaller parties in a system of

Agudath Yisrael. The Shinui party was created as a backlash to the perceived influence of the haredi parties, and to represent the interests of secular Jews that supposedly were not seen to by the other non-religious parties.^{[citation needed}

]

Tension also exists between the Orthodox establishment and the Conservative and Reform movements. Only Orthodox Judaism is officially recognized in Israel (though conversions conducted by Conservative and Reform clergy outside of Israel may be accepted for the purposes of the Law of Return). As a result, Conservative and Reform synagogues receive minimal government funding and support. Conservative and Reform rabbis cannot officiate at religious ceremonies and any marriages, divorces, and conversions they perform are not considered valid. Conservative and Reform Jews have been prohibited from holding services at the Western Wall on the grounds that they violate Orthodox norms regarding participation of women.^{[citation needed]}

Tensions exist surrounding

Israeli High Court of Justice stated the unlawfulness of gender segregation and abolished the "mehadrin" public buses. However, the court rule allowed the continuation of the gender segregation in public buses on a strictly voluntary basis for a one-year experimental period.^[109]

Between Jews and Christians

Yad LeAchim, which infiltrates those movements, as well as other proselytising groups such as Hare Krishna, and maintains extensive records on their activities. Attempts by Messianic Jews to evangelize other Jews are seen by many religious Jews as incitement to "avodah zarah" (foreign worship or idolatry). Over the years there have been several arson attempts of messianic congregations.^[110] There have also been attacks on Messianic Jews and hundreds of New Testaments distributed in Or Yehuda were burned.^[111] While missionary activity itself is not illegal in Israel, it is illegal to offer money or other material inducements. Legislation banning missionary work outright has been attempted in the past.^[112]

Some Orthodox Jewish communities in Israel have come under scrutiny for the negative

stereotyping and scapegoating of Christian minorities in the region, including violent acts against Christian missionaries and communities.^[113]

A frequent complaint of Christian clergy in Israel is being spat at by Jews, often

haredi yeshiva students.^[114] The Anti-Defamation League has called on the chief Rabbis to speak out against interfaith assaults.^[115]

Israel has been accused of obstructing Christian worship by Palestinian Christians by withholding entry permits at times of religious significance to the community.[116] The Israel Nature and Parks Authority has also been accused of encroaching on Christian holy sites.^[117] In January 2023, with the rise of the political far-right and religious Zionist parties, emboldened Jewish extremists took to vandalizing Christian grave sites.^[118]

Marriage and divorce

Main article: Marriage in Israel

Currently, Israel issues marriage licenses if performed under an official religious authority (whether it be Orthodox Jewish, Christian, Muslim, Druze, etc.) only between a man and a woman of the same religion. Civil marriages were officially sanctioned only if performed abroad, but 2010 changes in Israeli law allow secular marriage in Israel for people that have proven to lack any religion also.^[119][120] This is a major issue among secular groups, as well as adherents to non-Orthodox streams of Judaism. There is fear that civil marriage will divide the Jewish people in Israel between those who can marry Jews and those who cannot, leading to concerns over retaining the character of the Jewish state.

Relative sizes of the religious communities in Israel

Religion in Israel

• v
• t
• e

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.

     Jewish,      Muslim,      Christian,      Druze,      Other.
Until 1995, figures for Christians also included Others.^[121]

The census results are in thousands.^{[122][123][23][124]}

Year	Druze	%	Christian	%	Muslims	%	Jews	%	Total
1948	...		...		...		758.7		...
1950	15.0	1.09	36.0	2.63	116.1	8.47	1,203.0	87.80	1,370.1
1960	23.3	1.08	49.6	2.31	166.3	7.73	1,911.3	88.88	2,150.4
1970	35.9	1.19	75.5	2.50	328.6	10.87	2,582.0	85.44	3,022.1
1980	50.7	1.29	89.9	2.29	498.3	12.71	3,282.7	83.71	3,921.7
1990	82.6	1.71	114.7	2.38	677.7	14.05	3,946.7	81.85	4,821.7
2000	103.8	1.63	135.1	2.12	970.0	15.23	4,955.4	77.80	6,369.3
2010	127.5	1.66	153.4	1.99	1,320.5	17.16	5,802.4	75.40	7,695.1
2011	129.8	1.66	155.1	1.98	1,354.3	17.28	5,907.5	75.38	7,836.6
2012	131.5	1.65	158.4	1.98	1,387.5	17.38	5,999.6	75.14	7,984.5
2013	133.4	1.64	160.9	1.98	1,420.3	17.46	6,104.5	75.04	8,134.5
2014	135.4	1.63	163.5	1.97	1,453.8	17.52	6,219.2	74.96	8,296.9
2015	137.3	1.62	165.9	1.96	1,488.0	17.58	6,334.5	74.84	8,463.4
2016	139.3	1.61	168.3	1.95	1,524.0	17.66	6,446.1	74.71	8,628.6
2017	141.2	1.60	171.9	1.95	1,561.7	17.75	6,554.5	74.50	8,797.9
2018	143.2	1.60	174.4	1.95	1,598.4	17.82	6,664.4	74.32	8,967.6
2019	145.1	1.59	177.2	1.94	1,635.8	17.90	6,773.2	74.10	9,140.5
2020	146.8	1.58	179.5	1.93	1,671.3	17.99	6,873.9	73.99	9,289.8

In 2011, non-Arab Christians, estimated to number 25,000, were counted as "Jews and others".^[125]

See also

• Demographics of Israel
• Culture of Israel
• Hesder
• Jewish denominations
• Palestinian Christians
• Sherut Leumi
• Status quo (Israel)
• Tal committee

References

1. ^ "Israel's Religiously Divided Society". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 8 March 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
2. ^ Beit-Hallahmi 2011, p. 385.
3. ^ Sheetrit, Shimon (20 August 2001). "Freedom of Religion in Israel". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 6 February 2013. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Table 2.1 — Population, by Religion and Population. As of may 2011 estimate the population was 76.0 Jewish. Group". Statistical Abstract of Israel 2006 (No. 57). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2012.
5. ^ ^{a b} Karesh & Hurvitz 2005, p. 237.
6. ^ ^{a b} Beit-Hallahmi 2011, p. 386.
7. ISBN 978-1-56000-178-2
   .
8. ^ "People: Religious Freedom". mfa.gov.il. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
9. ^ "Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty".
10. ^ "Global Restrictions on Religion (Full report)" (PDF). The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. December 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2013.
11. ^ ""U.S. Department of State: 2012 Report on International Religious Freedom: Israel and The Occupied Territories (May 20, 2013)"".
12. ^ "ISRAEL 2017 INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM REPORT". U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
13. ^ "Israel Has Almost as Many Religious Restrictions as Iran, Pew Report Finds". Haaretz, JTA and Ben Sales. July 17, 2019
14. ^ ^{a b} Who are the most religious people in the world? Haaretz, 14 April 2015
15. ^ "A Portrait of Israeli Jewry: Beliefs, Observances, and Values among Israeli Jews 2000" (PDF). The Israel Democracy Institute and The AVI CHAI Foundation. 2002. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 June 2007. Retrieved 28 January 2008.
16. ^ Ib. p.11
17. ^ Hasson, Nir (27 January 2012). "Survey: Record Number of Israeli Jews Believe in God". Haaretz.
18. ^ ^{a b c} Yair Ettinger (11 June 2013). "Poll: 7.1 Percent of Israeli Jews Define Themselves as Reform or Conservative". Haaretz. Retrieved 26 June 2023.
19. ^ Dror-Cohen, Shlomit (12 September 2010). "Media Releases" לקט נתונים מתוך הסקר החברתי :2009 שמירה על המסורת היהודית ושינויים במידת הדתיות לאורך החיים בקרב האוכלוסייה היהודית בישראל [Social Survey 2009: Observance of Jewish Tradition and Changes in Religiosity of the Jewish Population in Israel]. Central Bureau of Statistics (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 16 November 2018.
20. ^ Moti Bassok (25 December 2007). "Central Bureau of Statistics: 2.1% of state's population is Christian". HAARETZ.com. Retrieved 29 January 2008.
21. ^ "Israel 2010: 42% of Jews are secular". Ynetnews. 18 May 2010.
22. ^ "Population, by Population Group" (PDF). Monthly Bulletin of Statistics. Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 31 December 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
23. ^ ^{a b} Israel's Independence Day 2019 (PDF) (Report). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 6 May 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
24. ^ "Sabbath Poll", Dateline World Jewry, World Jewish Congress, September 2007
25. ^
    ISBN 0962372315
    .
26. ISBN 9780801863455
    .
27. ^ "Freedom of Religion". BICOM. Archived from the original on 21 December 2005. Retrieved 14 October 2005.
28. ^ Daniel J. Elazar. "How Religious are Israeli Jews?". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Retrieved 28 January 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
29. ^ Ezrachi, Elan (2004). "The Quest for Spirituality among Secular Israelis". In Rebhum, Uzi; Waxman, Chaim I. (eds.). Jews in Israel: Contemporary Social and Cultural Patterns. Brandeis University Press. pp. 315–330.
30. ^ Ferziger, Adam S. (March 2008). "Religion for the Secular: The New Israeli Rabbinate," Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 7, 1: 67-90.
31. ^ Shtull-Trauring, Asaf (17 May 2010). "Poll Shows Ranks of Secular Jewish Minority in Israel Continued to Drop in 2009". Haaretz.
32. ^ ^{a b} Lipka, Michael (15 March 2016). "Unlike U.S., few Jews in Israel identify as Reform or Conservative". Pew Research Center.
33. ^ "Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Community in Israel: Facts and Figures (2022)". Jewish Virtual Library. A Project of AICE. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
34. ISBN 1-59244-943-3
    .
35. ^ Tabory, Ephraim (2004). "The Israel Reform and Conservative Movements and the Marker for the Liberal Judaism". In Rebhum, Uzi; Waxman, Chaim I. (eds.). Jews in Israel: Contemporary Social and Cultural Patterns. Brandeis University Press. pp. 285–314.
36. ISBN 978-1-56000-178-2
    .
37. ^ ^{a b c} Beit-Hallahmi 2011, p. 387.
38. ISBN 978-0-19-975927-9
    .
39. Jerusalem Post
    . Retrieved 27 April 2016.
40. ^ ^{a b} Survey: Majority of Israeli Jews support equality for Reform movement. JTA, 27 May 2016.
41. ISBN 978-0-87451-962-4
42. ^ "Tamar Pileggi 'Jews and Arabs proud to be Israeli, distrust government: Poll conducted before war shows marked rise in support for state among Arabs; religious establishment scores low on trust' (4 Jan 2015) The Times of Israel" http://www.timesofisrael.com/jews-and-arabs-proud-to-be-israeli-distrust-government/
43. ^ Mourad El-Kodsi, The Karaite Jews of Egypt, 1987.
44. ^ Ash-Shubban Al-Qarra’in 4, 2 June 1937, p. 8.
45. ^ Oesterley, W. O. E. & Box, G. H. (1920) A Short Survey of the Literature of Rabbinical and Mediæval Judaism, Burt Franklin:New York.
46. ^ A. J. Jacobs, The Year of Living Biblically, p. 69.
47. ^ ^{a b} Isabel Kershner, "New Generation of Jewish Sect Takes Up Struggle to Protect Place in Modern Israel", The New York Times, 4 September 2013.
48. ^ "Charakterystyka mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych w Polsce" (in Polish). Warsaw: Ministerstwo Spraw Wewnętrznych (Polish Interior Ministry). Retrieved 7 April 2012.
49. ^ ^{a b} Maltz, Judy (8 December 2016). "Israel to Publish Criteria for Recognizing Rabbis Who Perform Conversions Abroad". Haaretz.
50. ^ "Rabbinate forms conversion vetting panel, raising hackles anew".
51. ^ Pummer 1987.
52. ^ Mor, Reiterer & Winkler 2010.
53. ^ "Developed Community", A.B. The Samaritan News Bi-Weekly Magazine, 1 November 2007.
54. ^ David Noel Freedman, The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 5:941 (New York: Doubleday, 1996, c1992)
55. ^ Sela 1994, pp. 255–267.
56. ^ "Freedom of Religion in Israel". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
57. ^ "חדשות - בארץ nrg - ...המגזר הערבי נוצרי הכי מצליח במערכת".
58. ^ ^{a b c} Druckman, Yaron (23 December 2012). "Christians in Israel: Strong in education". Ynetnews.
59. ^ "ZENIT - Israel's Hebrew-Speaking Catholics". 27 September 2012. Archived from the original on 27 September 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
60. ^ Adriana Kemp & Rebeca Raijman, "Christian Zionists in the Holy Land: Evangelical Churches, Labor Migrants, and the Jewish State", Identities: Global Studies in Power and Culture, 10:3, 295-318
61. ^ Zylstra, Sarah. "Israeli Christians Think and Do Almost the Opposite of American Evangelicals". Christianity Today. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
62. ^ "Christian tourism to Israel". mfa.gov.il. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 24 February 2018.
63. ISBN 978-0-8283-2027-6
    . A more rapidly growing organization is the Messianic Jewish Alliance of America, whose congregations assemble on Friday evening and Saturday morning, recite Hebrew prayers, and sometimes wear talliot (prayer shawls). They worship Jesus, whom they call Yeshua.
64. ISBN 0-8160-5456-8
    . Messianic Judaism is a Protestant movement that emerged in the last half of the 20th century among believers who were ethnically Jewish but had adopted an Evangelical Christian faith.…By the 1960s, a new effort to create a culturally Jewish Protestant Christianity emerged among individuals who began to call themselves Messianic Jews.
65. ^ Daphna Berman. "Aliyah with a cat, a dog and Jesus". WorldWide Religious News citing & quoting "Haaretz", 10 June 2006. Archived from the original on 17 January 2008. Retrieved 28 January 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
66. ^ Larry Derfner; Ksenia Svetlova (29 April 2005). "Messianic Jews in Israel claim 10,000". The Jerusalem Post.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
67. ^ ^{a b} Sarah Posner (29 November 2012). "Kosher Jesus: Messianic Jews in the Holy Land". The Atlantic. Retrieved 28 June 2023.
68. ^ "Messianic perspectives for Today". leeds Messianic fellowship. Retrieved 28 January 2008. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
69. ^ "Israel Channel 2 News - 23 February 200…". 8 April 2007. Retrieved 28 January 2008. (9 minute video, Hebrew audio, English subtitles)
70. ^ Avner Falk Franks and Saracens: Reality and Fantasy in the Crusades p4 2010 - 225 "Nonetheless, the Talmudic Hebrew name (as well as the modern Hebrew name) for Christians is not meshikhiyim (messianic) but notsrim (people from Nazareth), referring to the fact that Jesus came from Nazareth."
71. ^ example: The Christian Church, Jaffa Tel-Aviv website article in Hebrew Archived 4 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine יהודים משיחיים - יהודים או נוצרים?
72. ^ "Southern Temple Mount".
73. ^ "The Destruction of the Temple Mount Antiquities, by Mark Ami-El". www.jcpa.org.
74. ^ "J'lem posters call for 3rd Temple". The Jerusalem Post - JPost.com.
75. ISBN 978-1898723240
    . Retrieved 2 June 2014.
76. ^ Guberman, Shlomo (2000). The Development of the Law in Israel: The First 50 Years, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accessed January 2007
77. ^ Emanuela C. Del Re (3 March 2014). "Approaching conflict the Ahmadiyya way: The alternative way to conflict resolution of the Ahmadiyya community in Haifa, Israel". Springer: 116. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
78. ^ "Kababir and Central Carmel – Multiculturalism on the Carmel". Retrieved 17 February 2015.
79. ^ "Visit Haifa". Retrieved 17 February 2015.
80. ^ "Kababir". Israel and You. Archived from the original on 30 January 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
81. ^ "The Druze population in Israel - a collection of data on the occasion of the Prophet Shuaib holiday" (PDF). CBS - Israel. Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 17 April 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
82. ^ Identity Repertoires among Arabs in Israel, Muhammad Amara and Izhak Schnell; Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 30, 2004
83. ^ Pace, Eric (5 October 1993). "Sheik Amin Tarif, Arab Druse Leader In Israel, Dies at 95". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
84. ISBN 9781788315593
    .
85. ISBN 9781906999254
    . [Druze] often they are not regarded as being Muslim at all, nor do all the Druze consider themselves as Muslim
86. ^ "Are the Druze People Arabs or Muslims? Deciphering Who They Are". Arab America. Arab America. 8 August 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
87. ISBN 9781135980795
    . Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
88. ISBN 9780199862634
    . While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is considered distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze consider themselves fully assimilated in American society and do not necessarily identify as Muslims..
89. ISBN 9780030525964
    . Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above.
90. ^
    ISSN 0278-2308
    . Retrieved 5 March 2015.
91. ^ Zev Vilnay; Karṭa (Firm) (1969). The new Israel atlas: Bible to present day. Israel Universities Press. p. 38.
92. ^ * Nechemia Meyers (1995). "Peace to all nations - Baha'is Establish Israel's Second Holy Mountain". The World & I. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
93. ^ ^{a b c} Donald H. Harrison (3 April 1998). "The Fourth Faith". Jewish Sightseeing. Haifa, Israel. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
94. ^ Universal House of Justice (13 January 2015). "Humanitarian Responses to Global Conflicts". Letters from the Universal House of Justice. Bahai-Library.com. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
95. ^ "Teaching the Faith in Israel". Baháʼí Library Online. 23 June 1995. Retrieved 6 August 2007.
96. ^ Universal House of Justice (30 April 1987). "Regarding the development of the properties of the Bahá'í World Centre". Bahá'í Reference Library, Selected Messages of the Universal House of Justice. Bahá'í International Community. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
97. ^ "Other visits to the Holy Land". Bahá'í World Centre. Archived from the original on 4 January 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
98. ^ "Waves of Devotion". 30 June 2007.
99. ^ Ilany, Ofri (22 March 2009). "Paganism Returns to the Holy Land". Haaretz.
100. ISBN 978-0-521-86662-0
     .
101. ^ "What is the Western Wall?". The Kotel. Archived from the original on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 6 March 2007.
102. ISBN 978-0-89870-821-9
     .
103. ISBN 978-1-885211-56-9
     . The general consensus is that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre marks the hill called Golgotha, and that the site of the Crucifixion and the last five Stations of the Cross are located under its large black domes.
104. ^ "Preserving Identity in the Holy City".^{[dead link]}
105. ^ Third-holiest city in Islam:
     • ISBN 978-0-19-515713-0
       . The Night Journey made Jerusalem the third holiest city in Islam
     • Brown, Leon Carl (15 September 2000). "Setting the Stage: Islam and Muslims". Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. Columbia University Press. p. 11.
       ISBN 978-0-231-12038-8
       . The third holiest city of Islam—Jerusalem—is also very much in the center...
     • Hoppe, Leslie J. (August 2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p. 14.
       ISBN 978-0-8146-5081-3
       . Jerusalem has always enjoyed a prominent place in Islam. Jerusalem is often referred to as the third holiest city in Islam...
106. ^ Middle East peace plans by Willard A. Beling: "The Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam after Mecca and Medina".
107. ^ "The Early Arab Period - 638-1099". Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. March 1997. Retrieved 24 April 2007.
108. ^ "Egged launches 11 'mehadrin' bus lines". Jerusalem Post. 1 December 2006. Archived from the original on 6 July 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
109. ^ Izenberg, Dan; Mandel, Jonah (6 January 2011). "Court scraps 'mehadrin' buses". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
110. ^ Elaine Ruth Fletcher (26 June 2000). "Orthodox Suspected in Jerusalem Conservative Synagogue, Church Attacks". beliefnet.com. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
111. HaAretz (Associated Press
     ), 20 May 2008
112. ^ Larry Derfner (29 April 2005). "A matter of faith". The Jerusalem Post.
113. ^ Persecution of Christians in Israel: The New Inquisition, Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Autumn, 1978), pp. 135–140
114. ^ Barkat, Amiram (27 June 2009). "Christians in Jerusalem want Jews to stop spitting on them". Haaretz.
115. ^ "ADL Calls On Chief Rabbis to Speak Out Against Interfaith Assaults In Old City". 17 October 2004. Archived from the original on 29 November 2008.
116. ^ Macintyre, Donald (20 April 2019). "Gaza Christians wait for permits to visit Jerusalem and Bethlehem at Easter". The Observer – via The Guardian.
117. ^ McKernan, Bethan (3 April 2023). "Mount of Olives becomes latest target in fight for control of Jerusalem". The Guardian.
118. ^ Holmes, Oliver (5 January 2023). "Outcry over footage of men smashing cross at Jerusalem cemetery". The Guardian.
119. ^ "Israeli couple become first to be wed in civil union". The Jerusalem Post - JPost.com.
120. ^ Fleet, Josh (4 November 2010). "Israel To Allow Civil Marriages". Huffington Post.
121. ^ "Population in Israel and in Jerusalem, by Religion, 1988 - 2016" (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 4 September 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
122. ^ "Statistical Abstract of Israel 2017". Central Bureau of Statistics.
123. ^ "Statistical Abstract of Israel 2014 - No. 65 Subject 2 - Table No. 2".
124. ^ Population - Statistical Abstract of Israel 2021 - No.72 CBS
125. ISBN 978-9950-376-14-4
     . pp.13,20

Notes

Bibliography

• Aran, Gideon (2004) [1990]. "From Religious Zionism to Zionist Religion". In Goldscheider, Calvin;
  ISBN 1-59244-943-3
  .
• ISBN 978-0-19-975927-9
  .
• Bilu, Yoram (2004). "The Sanctification of Space in Israel: Civil Religion and Folk Judaism". In Rebhum, Uzi; Waxman, Chaim I. (eds.). Jews in Israel: Contemporary Social and Cultural Patterns. Brandeis University Press. pp. 371–393.
• ISBN 9780801863455
  .
• Deshen, Shlomo (2004) [1990]. "The Social Foundation of Israeli Judaism". In Goldscheider, Calvin;
  ISBN 1-59244-943-3
  .
• Deshen, Shlomo;
  ISBN 978-1-56000-178-2
  .
• Ezrachi, Elan (2004). "The Quest for Spirituality among Secular Israelis". In Rebhum, Uzi; Waxman, Chaim I. (eds.). Jews in Israel: Contemporary Social and Cultural Patterns. Brandeis University Press. pp. 315–330.
• Ferziger, Adam S. (March 2008). "Religion for the Secular: The New Israeli Rabbinate," Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 7, 1. pp. 67-90.
• Ferziger, Adam S. (2016). "Foreign Ashes in Sovereign Space: Cremation and the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, 1931–1990," Jewish Studies Quarterly 23, 4. pp. 290-313.
• Karesh, Sara E.; Hurvitz, Mitchell M. (2005). "Israel". Encyclopedia of Judaism. Encyclopedia of World Religions.
  ISBN 0-8160-5457-6
  .
• ISBN 0962372315
  .
• ISBN 0-226-50883-8
  .
• ISBN 90-5702-012-2
  .
• Charles S. Liebman (1998). Modern Orthodoxy in Israel. Judaism, Fall.
• ISBN 9780300047264
  .
• ISBN 0-520-04817-2
• Mazie, Steven V. (2006). Israel's Higher Law: Religion and Liberal Democracy in the Jewish State. Lexington Books.
• ISBN 978-1-59884-203-6
  .
• Mor, Menachem; Reiterer, Friedrich V.; Winkler, Waltraud, eds. (2010). Samaritans: Past and Present: Current Studies. Studia Samaritana, 5 & Studia Judaica, 53. Berlin: De Gruyter.
  ISBN 978-3-11-019497-5
  .
• Peled, Yoav and Hurit (2018). The Religionization of Israeli Society. London; New York: Routledge.
• Posner, Sarah (29 November 2012). "Kosher Jesus: Messianic Jews in the Holy Land". The Atlantic.
• Pummer, Reinhard (1987). The Samaritans. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
  ISBN 90-04-07891-6
  .
• Ravitzky, Aviezer (1996) [1993]. Messianism, Zionism, and Jewish Religious Radicalism. Translated by Michael Swirsky and Jonathan Chipman. Chicago, Il: University of Chicago Press.
  ISBN 0-226-70577-3
  .
• ISBN 0-226-50880-3
  .
• Schweid, Eliezer (2004). "Judaism in Israeli Culture". In Rebhum, Uzi; Waxman, Chaim I. (eds.). Jews in Israel: Contemporary Social and Cultural Patterns. Brandeis University Press. pp. 243–264.
• Sela, Shulamit (1994). "The Head of the Rabbanite, Karaite and Samaritan Jews: On the History of a Title". Bulletin of the School of Oriental & African Studies. 57 (2). University of London: 255–267.
• Spector, Stephen (2008). Evangelicals and Israel. Oxford University Press.
  LCCN 2008026681
  .
• Tabory, Ephraim (2004) [1990]. "Reform and Conservative Judaism in Israel". In Goldscheider, Calvin;
  ISBN 1-59244-943-3
  .
• Tabory, Ephraim (2004). "The Israel Reform and Conservative Movements and the Marker for the Liberal Judaism". In Rebhum, Uzi; Waxman, Chaim I. (eds.). Jews in Israel: Contemporary Social and Cultural Patterns. Brandeis University Press. pp. 285–314.
• Troen, Ilan (April 2016). Secular Judaism in Israel, Society, Vol. 53, Issue 2.
• ISBN 0-8147-9261-8
  .
• ISBN 9781568210773
  .
• Waxman, Chaim I. (2004). "Religion in the Israeli Public Square". In Rebhum, Uzi; Waxman, Chaim I. (eds.). Jews in Israel: Contemporary Social and Cultural Patterns. Brandeis University Press. pp. 221–242.
• ISBN 978-1-60280-022-9
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Religion in Israel.

• The Israel Project: Religious Freedom in Israel: A Fundamental Guarantee
• Israel: Religion and Society
• Pluralism: Synagogue and the State of Israel
• M. Avrum Ehrlich, Past, Present and Future Developments of Arab Christianity in the Holy Land