Religion in Turkey
This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. (October 2023) |
Religion in Turkey |
---|
Secularism in Turkey |
Irreligion in Turkey |
Religion in Turkey consists of various religious beliefs. While it is known that
Turkey is
While the state is officially secular, all primary and secondary schools have been required to teach religious studies since 1982, and the curriculum focuses mainly on Sunni Islam. The extent to which other religions are covered depends on the school. These policies have been met with controversy and criticism by both the foreign media and the Turkish public. The high school curriculum, however, teaches religious studies through a philosophy (Felsefe) course and incorporates more information about other religions. The country also has public Islamic schools called İmam Hatip schools, which came to prominence in the 1950s. The schools vary in their curriculum and whether they teach Arabic.
Beginning in the 1980s, the role of religion in the state has been a divisive issue, as influential religious factions challenged the complete secularization called for by Kemalism and the observance of Islamic practices experienced a substantial revival.[5] In the early 2000s, Islamic groups challenged the concept of a secular state with increasing vigour after Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's Islamist-rooted Justice and Development Party (AKP) came into power in 2002. Turkey was historically a religiously diverse country in the past. On the eve of World War I, the predecessor of today's Turkey, the Ottoman Empire, had 20% of the population as non-Muslims. The non-Muslim population significantly decreased following the late Ottoman genocides, population exchange between Greece and Turkey and emigration of Jews and Christians.[citation needed]
Religious statistics
Year | 1914 | 1927 | 1945 | 1965 | 1990 | 2005 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Muslims | 12,941 | 13,290 | 18,511 | 31,139 | 56,860 | 71,997 |
Greeks | 1,549 | 110 | 104 | 76 | 8 | 3 |
Armenians | 1,204 | 77 | 60 | 64 | 67 | 50 |
Jews | 128 | 82 | 77 | 38 | 29 | 27 |
Others | 176 | 71 | 38 | 74 | 50 | 45 |
Total | 15,997 | 13,630 | 18,790 | 31,391 | 57,005 | 72,120 |
Percentage non-Muslim | 19.1 | 2.5 | 1.5 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0.2 |
Turkey doesn't conduct censuses about religious denominations. Although 99.8% of the population initially were registered as Muslims,[citation needed] academic research and polls give different results of the percentage of Muslims which are sometimes lower, most of which are above the 90% range.[citation needed] Traditionally non-Muslim ethnic groups comprise about 0.2% of the country's population.[citation needed]
In a poll conducted by
Religions | Estimated population | Expropriation measures[12] | Official recognition through the Constitution or international treaties | Government Financing of places of worship and religious staff |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hanafi
|
more than 85% of the population[13][14] | No | Yes through the Diyanet mentioned in the Constitution (art.136)[15] | Yes[table 1] through the Diyanet[16] |
Shafi'i
| ||||
Alevite Islam[17] | 4%[18] to 10%[10] | Yes[19] | Only by local municipalities, not constutituonal[20] | Yes through some local municipalities[20] |
Ja'fari
|
<1 Million[21] | No[22] | No[22] | |
<1 Million[23] | No[22] | No[16] | ||
Christianity – Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople | 65,000 | Yes[12] | Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[22] | No[16] |
Judaism | 18,000 | Yes[12] | Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[22] | No[16] |
Latin Catholicism
|
20,000 | No[22] | No[16] | |
Christianity – Syriac Orthodox Church | 15,000 | Yes[12] | No[22] | No[16] |
Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch
|
16,000 | Yes[24] | Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[22] | No[16] |
Chaldean Catholicism
|
8,000 | Yes[12] | No[22] | No[16] |
Christianity – Protestantism in Turkey | 5,500 | Yes[25] | Yes[22] | Yes[16] |
Christianity – Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople | 5,000 | Yes[12] | Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[22] | No[16] |
Christianity – Armenian Catholic Archeparchy of Istanbul | 3,500 | Yes[12] | Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[22] | No[16] |
Christianity – Syriac Catholic Church | 2,000 | Yes[12] | No[22] | No[16] |
Christianity – Union of the Armenian Evangelical Churches in the Near East | 1,500 | Yes[12] | Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[22] | No[16] |
Tengrism | 1,000 | No[22] | No[16] | |
Yazidism
|
5,000 | No[22] | No[16] | |
Christianity – Autocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate | 400 | Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[22] | No[16] | |
Christianity – Greek Byzantine Catholic Church | 50 | Yes[12] | Yes through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)[22] | No[16] |
- ^ This financing only covers the staff and permits. Electricity, water and other expenses are covered by citizen donations.
According to a poll made by MAK, which interviewed 5,400 people in face-to-face through the country, 86% of the Turkish population declared they believe in God and 76% declared they believe the Quran and other holy books came through revelation by God.[26]
Another recent poll by OPTİMAR which interviewed 3,500 people in 26 cities, included a question about belief in God and found that 89.5% of the Turkish population believed in God, 4.5% believed in God but did not belong to an organized religion, 2.7% were agnostic, 1.7% were atheist, and 1.1% did not answer.[18]
According to a survey by World Values Survey In 2018 98.0% Identified as Muslims, while 1.2% Identified with no Religion and 0.8 as other.[27]
According to a survey by the pollster KONDA, the percentage of atheists in Turkey has tripled in 10 years and rose from 1% in 2008 to 3% in 2018, the percentage of non-believers or agnostics rose from 1% to 2%, and that 90% of irreligious Turks were under 35 years old. The survey was conducted in Turkey through face-to-face interviews with 5,793 people in their households, in April, 2018 while in 2008 6,482 people were interviewed in face-to-face in Turkey.[13][14][28]
In a 2023 report, Faith and Religiosity in Türkiye, released by the Marmara University but involving Turkish academics from other institutions as well, the researchers, found that 94% of those who took part in the survey Identified as believing in God and 1.5% didn't believe in god, 2.5% were not sure god exists and 1.7% didn't believe in a personal god but believed in a higher power.[7] According to the same study 62% Identified with the Hanafi school of thought, 15.1% said they were Non-denominational Muslim, 9.6% refused to give an answer, 9% followed the Shafi'i school of thought, 3.1% Identified with the Alevism sect, 0.2% with the Hanbali school of thought, 0.2% with the Maliki school of thought, 0.2% with the Ja'fari school of thought and 0.6% said other.[7]
Source | Islam | No religion | Christianity | Other religions and no reply |
---|---|---|---|---|
Report on Faith and Religiosity in Turkey | 94% | 6% | N/A | N/A |
KONDA (2021)[10](rounded figures) | 92% | 6% | N/A | 2% |
Optimar (2019) | 89% | 8.9% | 0.3% | 1.1% |
World Values Survey (2018) | 98.0% | 1.2% | N/A | 0.8 |
MAK (2017) | 86% | 12.5% | 0.5% | 1% |
Ipsos (2016) | 82% | 13% | 2% | 3% |
Pew Research Center (2016) | 98% | 1.2% | 0.4% | 0.4% |
KONDA (2008) | 97% | 2% | 0.2% | 0.8% |
Sabancı University (2006) | 98.3% | 1.5% | 0.2% | N/A |
Government official numbers[when?][citation needed] | 99.8% | N/A | 0.2% | N/A |
Islam
Alevism, which is the dominant sect of Shia Islam in Turkey, is mostly concentrated in the provinces of Tunceli, Erzincan Malatya, Sivas, Çorum, Kahramanmaraş, Amasya and Tokat. Tunceli is the only province of Turkey with an Alevi majority. Ethnic Kurds and Zazas make up a significant share of Alevi population of Turkey, although majority of them are ethnic Turks.
Islam arrived in the region that comprises present-day Turkey, particularly the eastern provinces of the country, as early as the 7th century. The mainstream
As of today, there are thousands of historical mosques throughout the country which are still active. Notable mosques built in the Seljuk and Ottoman periods include the
Minority religions
The remainder of the population belongs to other faiths, particularly
Turkey has numerous important sites for
Istanbul, since 1461, is the seat of the
There are many
The percentage of Christians in Turkey fell from 17.5% (three million followers) in a population of 16 million to 2.5% percent in 1927.
The
Tengrism is also one of the small religious minorities in Turkey. The interest in Tengrism, which is the old Turkic religion, has been increasing in recent years and the number of people who consider themselves Tengrists has increased.[53]
A sizeable part of the
Irreligion
Irreligion in Turkey is uncommon among Turks as Islam is the predominant faith however some secular officials have also claimed that atheism and deism are growing among Turkish people in recent years.[57][58][59][60][61]
According to a Ipsos survey conducted in 2017, which interviewed 17,180 adults across 22 countries polls showed that 82% of Turkey was Muslim and 7% of those who were interviewed from Turkey followed no religion whereas 6% identified as "Spiritual but not religious".[62]
According to a poll made by MAK in 2017, 86% of the Turkish population declared they believe in God. 76% declared they believe Quran and other holy books came through revelation by God.[63] According to another poll made in 2019 by OPTİMAR, which interviewed 3,500 people across 26 cities that 89.5% of those who were interviewed declared they believe in God while 4.5% said they believe in a God but do not believe in a religion.[64] Since there is stigma attached to being an atheist in Turkey, many Turkish atheists communicate with each other via the Internet.[65][66][67][68]
Another poll conducted by Gezici Araştırma in 2020 found that across 12 provinces and 18 districts in Turkey with the sample size of 1,062 people stated that 28.5% of Gen Z in Turkey identified with no religion.[69][70]
In a 2023 report, Faith and Religiosity in Türkiye, released by the
Secularism
Turkey has a
Despite its official secularism, the Turkish government includes the state agency of the
Beginning in the 1980s, the role of religion in the state has been a divisive issue, as influential religious factions challenged the complete secularization called for by Kemalism and the observance of Islamic practices experienced a substantial revival. In the early 2000s (decade), Islamic groups challenged the concept of a secular state with increasing vigor after Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's Islamist-rooted Justice and Development Party (AKP) came into power in 2002.
Turkey, through the
With more than 100,000 employees, the Presidency of Religious Affairs has been described as state within the state.[81]
Religious organization
The mainstream
The
Historical Christian sites
Additionally, all of the first
Religious freedom
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and Turkey is a party to the European Convention on Human Rights.[83]
Turkey has a democratic government and a strong tradition of secularism. Nevertheless, the Turkish state's interpretation of secularism has reportedly resulted in religious freedom violations for some of its non-Muslim citizens. The 2009 U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom report placed Turkey on its watchlist with countries such as Afghanistan, Cuba, the Russian Federation, and Venezuela.[84] Nevertheless, according to this report, the situation for Jews in Turkey is better than in other majority Muslim countries. Jews report being able to worship freely and their places of worship having the protection of the government when required. Jews also operate their own schools, hospitals, two elderly homes, welfare institutions, as well as a newspaper. Despite this, concerns have arisen in recent years because of attacks by extremists on synagogues in 2003, as well as growing anti-Semitism in some sectors of the Turkish media and society.
Catholic Christians have also occasionally been subjected to violent societal attacks. In February 2006, an Italian Catholic priest was shot to death in his church in Trabzon, reportedly by a youth angered over the caricatures of Muhammad in Danish newspapers. The government strongly condemned the killing. A 16-year-old boy was subsequently charged with the murder and sentenced to 19 years in prison. In December 2007, a 19-year-old stabbed a Catholic priest outside a church in İzmir; the priest was treated and released the following day. According to newspaper reports, the assailant, who was arrested soon afterward, admitted that he had been influenced by a recent television program that depicted Christian missionaries as "infiltrators" who took advantage of poor people.
The
Patriarch
In 2022, Freedom House rated Turkey’s religious freedom as 2 out of 4,[92] noting that apart from Sunni Islam, Judaism, Orthodox Christianity and Armenian Christianity are officially recognized, but there are regular disputes regarding property and training of clerics.
Religiosity
In a poll conducted by Sabancı University in 2006, 98.3% of Turks revealed they were Muslim.[9] Of that, 19% said they were "extremely religious", 45% said they were "somewhat religious", and 33% said they were "not very religious" and 3% had "no religious beliefs".[9] 3% of Turks declare themselves with no religious beliefs.[9]
According to Pew in 2020, 89% of Turks say religion plays an important role in their life (71% very important, 18% somewhat important), and 8% say religion doesn't play an important role in their life (3% not at all important, 5% not too important), 75% of Turks also say it is necessary to believe in God to be moral, compare to 84% in 2002.[94]
According to the TFRS study in 2023[7]
- 62% responded : "Religious or very religious."
- 24% responded : "Neither religious nor non-religious."
- 14 % responded : "Not religious."
According to a poll made by OPTİMAR in 2019 [95]
- 89.5 % responded : "I believe in God's existence and oneness." (Theist)
- 4.5 % responded : "I think there is a Creator, but I am not religious." (Deist)
- 2.7 % responded : "I'm not sure if there is a Creator." (agnostic)
- 1.7 % responded : "I don't think there is a Creator." (Atheist)
- 1.7 % responded no answer.
According to the Pew Research Center report 2015:[96]
- 61 % of people in Turkey say religion is "very important" to their lives.
- 22 % of people in Turkey say religion is "somewhat important" to their lives.
- 7 % of people in Turkey say religion is "not too important" to their lives.
- 3 % of people in Turkey say religion is "not at all important" to their lives.
According to the
- 23 % defined themselves as "a religious person".
- 73 % defined themselves as "not a religious person".
- 2 % defined themselves as "a convinced atheist".
According to the Eurobarometer Poll 2010:[98]
- 94 % of Turkish citizens responded: "I believe there is a God". (theist)
- "I believe there is some sort of spirit or life force". (spiritual) 1 % responded:
- "I do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". (neither theist nor spiritual) 1 % responded:
According to the KONDA Research and Consultancy survey carried out throughout Turkey in 2007:[99]
- 52.8 % defined themselves as "a religious person who strives to fulfill religious obligations" (Practicing religious).
- 34.3 % defined themselves as "a believer who does not fulfill religious obligations" (Religious in the name).
- 9.7 % defined themselves as "a fully devout person fulfilling all religious obligations" (Fully devout).
- 2.3 % defined themselves as "someone who does not believe in religious obligations" (Non-believer).
- 0.9 % defined themselves as "someone with no religious conviction" (Irreligious).
Claims of increasing Islamization
The rise of Islamic religiosity in Turkey in the last two decades, under the government of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and the Justice and Development Party (AKP), has been discussed for the past several years.[100][101][102] Many see Turkish society moving towards a more hardline Islamic identity and country,[100][102] citing increasing religious criticisms against what is considered immoral behaviour and government policies seen as enforcing conservative Islamic morality, as well as the controversial blasphemy conviction of the pianist Fazıl Say for "insulting Islam" by retweeting a joke about the Islamic Friday prayer. The New York Times published a report about Turkey in 2012, noting an increased polarization between secular and religious groups in Turkish society and politics. Critics argue that Turkish public institutions, once staunchly secular, are shifting in favour of Islamists.[101]
Turkish academic Ayhan Kaya, in his 2015 research article Islamisation of Turkey under the AKP Rule: Empowering Family, Faith and Charity, summarizes the question by talking of "a subtle Islamisation of society and politics in everyday life through the debates on the headscarf issue, Imam Hatip schools, faith communities and Alevism, the rise of an Islamic bourgeoisie with its roots in Anatolian culture, the emergence of consumerist lifestyles, not only among the secular segments of the Turkish society but also among Islamists, and, finally, the weakening of the legitimacy of the Turkish military as ‘the guardian of national unity and the laicist order’."[103]
Statistics
In a 2022 book chapter, Turkish political scientist S. Erdem Aytaç, while analyzing different nationally representative polls and surveys from 2002, when the AKP rule began, till 2018, when the latest data was available, noted "an increase in subjective religiosity during the AKP rule", as the share of "non-devout" respondents fell from 44% in 2002 to 28% in 2018 while the "devout" rose from 32% to 42% and the "very devout" from 24% to 30% during these years.[104]
In education
The government of Erdoğan and the AKP pursue the explicit policy agenda of Islamization of education to "raise a devout generation" against secular resistance,[105][106] in the process causing lost jobs and school for many non-religious citizens of Turkey.[107]
In 2013, several books that were previously recommended for classroom use were found to be rewritten to include more Islamic themes, without the Ministry of Education's consent. Traditional stories of
Headscarf controversy
For most of the 20th century, Turkish law prohibited the wearing of headscarves and similar garments of religious symbolism in public governmental institutions.
Subsequently, the issue formed a core of Recep Tayyip Erdogan's first campaign for the presidency in 2007, arguing that it was an issue of human rights and freedoms[111][112] Following his victory, the ban was eliminated in a series of legislative acts starting with an amendment to the constitution in 2008 allowing women to wear headscarves in Turkish universities while upholding the prohibition of symbols of other religions in that context.[109][113][114] Further changes saw the ban eliminated in some government buildings including parliament the next year, followed by the police forces and, finally, the military in 2017.[76]
Restriction of alcohol sales and advertising
In 2013, the parliament of Turkey passed legislation that bans all forms of advertising for alcoholic beverages and tightened restrictions on alcohol sales.[115] This also includes the censoring of images on television, usually implemented by blurring, historically implemented by CNBC-e as flower placement. The law was sponsored by the ruling AKP.
Hagia Sophia conversion
In early July 2020, the Council of State annulled the Cabinet's 1934 decision to establish the museum, revoking the monument's status, and a subsequent decree by Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan ordered the reclassification of Hagia Sophia as a mosque.[116][117][118] The 1934 decree was ruled to be unlawful under both Ottoman and Turkish law as Hagia Sophia's waqf, endowed by Sultan Mehmed, had designated the site a mosque; proponents of the decision argued the Hagia Sophia was the personal property of the sultan.[119][120][121] This redesignation is controversial, invoking condemnation from the Turkish opposition, UNESCO, the World Council of Churches, the International Association of Byzantine Studies, and many international leaders.[122][123][124][125][126]
During his speech announcing the conversion of the monument, Erdoğan highlighted how the conversion would gratify the "spirit of conquest" of Mehmet II, and during the first sermon on 24 July 2020, Ali Erbaş, head of Turkey's Directorate of Religious Affairs, held a sword in his hand, symbolizing a tradition of conquest. This was perceived as a branding of the non-Muslim population of Turkey, especially the Greek Orthodox as "re-conquered subjects and second-class citizens".[127]
Church of St. Saviour in Chora conversion
In August 2020, just a month after the Hagia Sophia, the president of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan ordered the ancient Orthodox Church, the 1,000 year old
Counterclaims
Many also see interest and support of secularism in Turkey as increasing, not decreasing.[130][131][132] After Erdogan made a statement in January 2012 about his desire to "raise a religious youth," politicians of all parties condemned his statements as abandoning Turkish values. A petition reading "[O]f Muslim, Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, Alawite, Shafi’i, religious and non-religious, atheist and agnostic backgrounds, all joined with a firm belief in secularism, [we] find your recent remarks about raising a religious and conservative youth most alarming and dangerous" was signed by over 2,000 people. The pro-government newspaper Bugün ran a story stating "no one has the right to convert this society into a religious one, or the opposite." Surveys of the Turkish people also show a great support for maintaining secular lifestyles. The Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation found that only 9% of Turks supported a religious state in 2006.[130] A more recent 2015 poll by Metropoll found that over 80% of Turkish people supported the continuation of Turkey as a secular state, with even the majority of AKP voters supporting a secular state too.[133] Furthermore, according to a 2016 Pew Research Center Report, only 13% of all Turks believe laws should "strictly follow the teachings of the Qur'an."[134]
An early April 2018 report of the Turkish Ministry of Education, titled "The Youth is Sliding to Deism", observed that an increasing number of pupils in İmam Hatip schools was abandoning Islam in favour of deism. The report's publication generated large-scale controversy amongst conservative Muslim groups in Turkish society. Progressive Islamic theologian Mustafa Öztürk noted the deist trend a year earlier, arguing that the "very archaic, dogmatic notion of religion" held by the majority of those claiming to represent Islam was causing "the new generations [to get] indifferent, even distant, to the Islamic worldview." Despite lacking reliable statistical data, numerous anecdotes appear to point in this direction. Although some commentators claim the secularisation is merely a result of Western influence or even a "conspiracy", most commentators, even some pro-government ones, have come to conclude that "the real reason for the loss of faith in Islam is not the West but Turkey itself: It is a reaction to all the corruption, arrogance, narrow-mindedness, bigotry, cruelty and crudeness displayed in the name of Islam." Especially when the AKP Islamists are in power to enforce Islam upon society, this is making citizens turn their back on it.[135] However, in the 2023 report Faith and Religiosity in Türkiye, the authors, who say that "a significant portion of society, particularly younger individuals, believes in God but distances themselves from religious institutions and practices", conclude that despite deism having some attraction among university students in particular (highest of 15% among BA students), in the overall society "the prevalence of deism in Türkiye is estimated to be less than 2%."[7]
Yılmaz Esmer, a Turkish professor, did a survey on radicalism and fundamentalism in the country in 2009, on subjects such as Darwinian evolution (7% believed in it back then), but he noted that the results weren't different from a similar survey done in 1990, thus noting that there has been no real "recent Islamic resurgence encouraged by the rule of the AKP", just that religiosity was always there but now "has become more visible."[136]
See also
- Christianity in Turkey
- Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople
- Greek (Ecumenical) Patriarchate of Constantinople
- Protestantism in Turkey
- Catholic Church in Turkey
- Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate
- Baháʼí Faith in Turkey
- Cultural Muslim
- Islam in Turkey
- Alevism
- Bektashism
- Judaism in Turkey
- Headscarf controversy in Turkey
- Mersin Interfaith Cemetery
- Religion by country
- Tengrism
- Yazidis in Turkey
- Buddhism in Turkey
- Hinduism in Turkey
- List of mosques in Turkey
- List of synagogues in Turkey
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Further reading
- Ramazan Kılınç, University of Nebraska, Omaha (10 October 2019). Alien Citizens The State and Religious Minorities in Turkey and France. ISBN 9781108476942.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - Altınlı-Macić, M., & Coleman, T. J. III, (2015). Spirituality and Religion: An Empirical Study Using a Turkish Muslim Sample. In Z. Agilkaya-Sahin, H. Streib, A. Ayten & R. Hood (Eds.), Psychology of Religion in Turkey (pp. 161–176). Leiden: Brill. doi: 10.1163/9789004290884_008
- Peker, E. 2020. "Beyond Positivism: Building Turkish Laiklik in the Transition from the Empire to the Republic (1908–38)." Social Science History
- "The Legal Status of the Ecumenical Patriarchate". Jaakko Husa, University of Joensuu. Ortodoksi.net.
- "Survey shows majority of Turks are devout believers". Hürriyet Daily News. 10 August 2012.