Religious views on suicide

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Painting by Giotto depicting a person committing the sin of desperatio, the rejection of God's mercy, because while choked they are unable to ask for repentance.[1]

There are a variety of religious views on suicide.

Regarding suicide in the ancient European religions, both Roman and Greek, had a relaxed attitude.[2][3][4]

Dharmic religions

Buddhism

In Buddhism, an individual's past acts are recognized to heavily influence what they experience in the present; present acts, in turn, become the background influence for future experiences (the doctrine of karma). Intentional actions by mind, body or speech have a reaction. This reaction, or repercussion, is the cause of conditions and differences one encounters in life.

Buddhism teaches that all people experience substantial

maya). Since everything is in a constant state of impermanence or flux, individuals experience dissatisfaction with the fleeting events of life. To break out of samsara, Buddhism advocates the Noble Eightfold Path
, and does not advocate suicide.

In

Sangha.[5]

For Buddhists, since the first precept is to refrain from the destruction of life, including one's self, suicide is seen as a negative act. If someone dies by suicide in anger, he may be reborn in a sorrowful realm due to negative final thoughts.[6][7] Nevertheless, Buddhism does not condemn suicide without exception, but rather observes that the reasons for suicide are often negative and thus counteract the path to enlightenment.[8] With that said, in thousands of years of Buddhist history, very few exceptions are found.

But in a Buddhist tale, a

arhant).[9] Self-euthanasia
appears to be the context for his death.

Another case is the story of a bhikkhu named Godhika, also beset by illness,

Buddha
was said to have stated:

Such indeed is how the steadfast act:

They are not attached to life. Having drawn out craving at its root

Godhika has attained final Nibbaana.[9]

Ultimately, tales like these could be read as implying past Buddhist beliefs that suicide might be acceptable in certain circumstances if it might lead to non-attachment. In both above cases, the monks were not enlightened before dying by suicide but they hoped to become enlightened following their deaths.[10]

The Channovàda-sutra gives a third exceptional example of one who died by suicide and subsequently attained enlightenment.[11]

In an entry in The Encyclopedia of Religion, Marilyn J. Harran wrote the following:

Buddhism in its various forms affirms that, while suicide as self-sacrifice may be appropriate for the person who is an arhat, one who has attained enlightenment, it is still very much the exception to the rule.[12]

mummification while alive.[13] This is done to attain Buddha-nature
in one's body.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, suicide is spiritually unacceptable. Generally, taking your own life is considered a violation of the code of ahimsa (non-violence) and therefore equally sinful as murdering another. Some scriptures state that to die by suicide (and any type of violent death) results in becoming a ghost, wandering earth until the time one would have otherwise died, had one not died by suicide.[14]

The Mahabharata talks of suicide, stating those who perform the act can never attain regions (of heaven) that are blessed.[15] [not in citation given]

Hinduism accepts a person's right to end one's life through Prayopavesa.[16] Prayopavesa is for old age yogis who have no desire or ambition left, and no responsibilities remaining in this life.[16] Another example is dying in a battle to save one's honor.

Jainism

In Jainism, suicide is regarded as the worst form of himsā (violence) and is not permitted.[citation needed] Ahimsā (nonviolence) is the fundamental doctrine of Jainism.

According to the

Jain text Puruşārthasiddhyupāya, "when death is near" the vow of sallekhanā (fasting to death) is observed by properly thinning the body and the passions.[17] It also mentions that sallekhanā is not suicide since the person observing it is devoid of all passions like attachment.[18]

Abrahamic religions

Christianity

Main article: Christian views on suicide
See also:
Martyrdom in Christianity

There is no express biblical warrant condemning and prohibiting suicide, and there are persons mentioned within the Bible who die by suicide.

Judas)[22][23] and divine judgement resulting in military defeat (Saul and Abimelech). In particular, Bible (King James) Psalm 37:14-15 describes the "wicked" as falling on their own swords, and Zimri is described as having "died for his sins which he committed, doing evil in the eyes of Yahweh" (s:Translation:1 Kings#Chapter 16:18-19). Many Christian theologians take an unfavorable view of suicide.[24]

Psalm 139:8 ("If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there: if I make my bed in hell, behold, thou art there.") has often been discussed in the context of those who die by suicide.[25][26][27][28]

According to the theology of the

consecrated ground. However, the Church has since changed this practice.[30]

Protestants such as

Charismatics, Pentecostals, and other denominations have often argued that suicide is self-murder
, and so anyone who performs the act is sinning and it is the same as if the person murdered another human being. An additional view concerns the act of asking for salvation and accepting Jesus Christ as personal savior, which must be done prior to death. The unpardonable sin then becomes not the suicide itself, but rather the refusal of the gift of salvation. Most pentecostals believe that a Born-Again person can still go to Heaven because the blood of Jesus covers the sin of suicide.

Suicide is regarded generally within the Eastern Orthodoxy tradition as a rejection of God's gift of physical life, a failure of stewardship, an act of despair, and a transgression of the sixth commandment, "You shall not kill" (Exodus 20:13). The Orthodox Church normally denies a

mental illness
or severe emotional stress, when a physician can verify a condition of impaired rationality.

In early Christian traditions, the condemnation of suicide is reflected in the teachings of Lactantius, St. Augustine, Clement of Alexandria, and others. Among the martyrs at Antioch were three women who died by suicide to avoid rape; although professor William E. Phipps gives this as an example of virtuous early Christian suicides, Augustine declared that although they may have done "what was right in the sight of God," in his view the women "should not have assumed that rape would necessarily have deprived them of their purity" (as purity was, to Augustine, a state of mind).[31]

Some other denominations of Christianity may not condemn those who die by suicide

The New Church.[32] In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), suicide is generally viewed as wrong, although the victim may not be considered responsible for the act depending on the circumstances.[33]

Islam

See also: Islamic view of death § Suicide

Islam clearly forbids suicide as a verse in the Quran instructs:

"And do not kill yourselves, surely God is most Merciful to you."

— 
Quran 4:29 [34]

The prohibition of suicide has also been recorded in statements of hadith (believed sayings of Muhammad); for example:

Narrated

Abu Huraira: The Prophet said, "He who commits suicide by throttling shall keep on throttling himself in the Hell-Fire (forever) and he who commits suicide by stabbing himself shall keep on stabbing himself in the Hell-Fire."

— Sahih al-Bukhari, 2:23:446

Many Muslim scholars and clerics consider suicide

suicide attacks.[35][36][37]

Judaism

Main articles: Jewish views on suicide, Self-sacrifice in Jewish law, Kiddush Hashem, and Martyrdom in Judaism

Suicides are frowned upon and buried in a separate part of a Jewish cemetery and may not receive certain mourning rites. In practice, every means is used to excuse suicide—usually by determining either that the suicide itself proves that the person was not in their right mind, or that the person must have repented after performing the deadly act but shortly before death occurred. Taking one's own life may be seen as a preferred alternative to committing certain

Leviticus 19:14 ("Do not put a stumbling block before the blind"), which is understood as prohibiting tempting to sin as well as literally setting up physical obstacles.[40]

Biblical and other Jewish accounts of suicide include those of

Jewish historian Josephus described a Jewish mass suicide at Masada,[41] according to the archaeologist Kenneth Atkinson, no "archaeological evidence that Masada's defenders committed mass suicide" exists.[42]

Neopagan religions

Wicca

In

Neopagan religions, there is no consensus concerning suicide. Some view suicide as a violation of the sanctity of life, and a violation of the most fundamental of Wiccan laws, the Wiccan Rede. However, as Wicca teaches a belief in reincarnation instead of permanent rewards or punishments, many believe that suicides are reborn (like everyone else) to endure the same circumstances in each subsequent lifetime until the capacity to cope with the circumstance develops.[43]

See also

References

  1. ^ Comprehensive Textbook of Suicidology, pp. 108–9.
  2. ^ Danielle Gourevitch, "Suicide among the sick in classical antiquity." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 43.6 (1969): 501-518.
  3. ^ John D. Papadimitriou, et al. "Euthanasia and suicide in antiquity: viewpoint of the dramatists and philosophers." Journal of the Royal Society of medicine 100.1 (2007): 25-28. online
  4. ^ Anton J. L. Van Hooff, From autothanasia to suicide: Self-killing in classical antiquity (Routledge, 2002).
  5. ^ Pruitt & Norman, The Patimokkha, 2001, Pali Text Society, Lancaster, Defeat 3
  6. ^ 千萬不要自殺﹗--悔恨千年剧烈痛苦!
  7. ^ "珍惜生命（墮胎與自殺的真相）". www.bfnn.org.
  8. ^ 論佛教的自殺觀
  9. ^ a b c d e Attwood, Michael. "Suicide as A Response to Suffering". Western Buddhist Review. Archived from the original on 22 May 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
  10. ^ Buddhism, euthanasia and suicide at the BBC
  11. ^ Damien Keown. "Buddhism and Suicide The Case of Channa" (PDF). Journal of Buddhist Ethics. 3 (1996): 19–21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-15. Retrieved 2010-11-29.
  12. ISBN 978-0-02-865733-2
    .
  13. ^ Jeremiah, Ken. Living Buddhas: The Self-mummified Monks of Yamagata, Japan. McFarland, 2010
  14. ^ Hindu Website. Hinduism and suicide
  15. ^ Mahabharata section CLXXXI
  16. ^ a b "Hinduism - Euthanasia and Suicide". BBC. 2009-08-25.
  17. ^ "Jainism - world, body, life, time, person, human". www.deathreference.com.
  18. ^ "Alt URL".
  19. ^ "Is Suicide Unforgivable?".
  20. ISBN 978-0-691-14097-1
    .
  21. ^ Elisabeth Brockmann: Selbsttötungen in der Bibel, in: AGUS (ed.): Kirche – Umgang mit Suizid, p. 18-20.
  22. ^ Pulpit Commentary on 2 Samuel 17: "Here Ahithophel is almost certainly intended"
  23. ^ Eugen J. Pentiuc, Judas’ Profile in the Psalms: Meditation on the Holy Wednesday, accessed 5 August 2017
  24. ^ "What Does the Bible Say About Suicide?".
  25. ^ Dowie, J. A. (1902). Leaves of Healing. Vol. v. 11. Zion Publishing House. p. 702.
  26. ISBN 978-1-942056-55-3
    .
  27. ISBN 978-0-664-25085-0
    .
  28. ISBN 978-0-19-161399-9
    .
  29. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church, Paragraph 2280, 2281".
  30. ^ Byron, William. "Do People Who Commit Suicide Go to Hell?". Catholic Digest. Archived from the original on 19 December 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2013.
  31. ^ Phipps, William. "Christian Perspectives on Suicide". religion-online. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 27 November 2013.
  32. ^ Odhner, John. "Reflections on Suicide". Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
  33. ^ "Suicide". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Archived from the original on 2011-07-15.
  34. Quran 4:29
    }
  35. ^ "The Hijacked Caravan: Refuting Suicide Bombings as Martyrdom Operations in Contemporary Jihad Strategy" Archived 2005-09-06 at the Wayback Machine, Ihsanic Intelligence
  36. ^ Noah Feldman, "Islam, Terror and the Second Nuclear Age", New York Times, October 29, 2006
  37. ^ David Bukay, From Muhammad to Bin Laden: Religious and Ideological Sources of the Homicide Bombers Phenomenon, 2011.
  38. ^ See Talmud Bavli Gittin, 57b.
  39. ^ See Talmud Bavli Avoda Zara 18a
  40. ^ See Talmud Bavli (B.) Pesachim 22b; B. Mo'ed Katan 5a, 17a; B. Bava Mezia 75b. and B. Nedarim 42b.
  41. ^ Masada and the first Jewish revolt against Rome Archived 2009-10-16 at the Wayback Machine: Near East Tourist Industry, Steven Langfur 2003
  42. ISBN 9789004150089
    .
  43. ^ "Pagans and Suicide". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2013-02-08.

Further reading

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